Flaming in the Electronic Classroom - Reinig, Bruce A; Briggs, Robert O; Nunamaker Jr, Jay F (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1997)
Research has shown that group support systems (GSS) can be used to substantially improve learning at all levels of formal education. However, some instructors are reluctant to adopt GSS because they are concerned that learners will engage in flaming, or verbal attacks intended to offend either persons or organizations and often characterized by profanity, obscenity, and insults. This paper posits that flaming is caused by hostility engendered by a perception that vested interests have been or are about to be violated. It further posits that the relationship between hostility and flaming is moderated by personal values and risk of reprisal. A longitudinal experiment is presented that provides empirical support for the model. The paper then reports five field cases highlighting various strategies used by instructors for reducing or eliminating flaming.
Keywords: electronic classroom; field study research; flaming

Information Exchange and Use in GSS and Verbal Group Decision Making: Effects of Minority Influence - Dennis, Alan R; Hilmer, Kelly M; Taylor, Nolan J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1997)
This study investigated the effects of GSS use on the exchange and use of information with and without a majority/minority split of opinion in the group. When there was a distinct majority/minority, groups exchanged more information, made better decisions, and took no more time when they used a GSS than when they did not use a GSS. In this case, the GSS enabled the minority to overcome the group's inertia toward the majority preference. In the uniform treatment where there was no majority preference, groups exchanged more information but made worse decisions and took more time when they used a GSS than when they did not. The primary cause for the poor performance when using the GSS was that group members did not process and use information received during discussion.
Keywords: group support systems; hidden profile

Anonymity in Group Support Systems Research: A New Conceptualization, Measure, and Contingency Framework - Pinsonneault, Alain; Heppel, Nelson (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1997)
Anonymity is a fundamental concept in group support systems (GSS) research. It is expected to reduce fear of social disapproval and of evaluation, and to lower inhibition and censorship. This is believed to create an environment that improves participation and communication, that promotes more objective and honest evaluation of ideas, and that enhances the productivity of groups and their decision-making process. However, empirical evidence about what are the effects of anonymity in GSS is inconclusive. This paper argues that there are two main reasons for the lack of consistent findings. First is the fact that anonymity has been defined too narrowly as the nonidentification of participants when, in fact, the literature in social psychology suggests that anonymity is multidimensional and subjective in nature. Second is the fact that the effects of anonymity interacts with other situational variables, making its relation to disinhibition complex. This paper argues that one critical situational variable is the importance of social evaluation of group members. A measure of the new conceptualization of anonymity and of the importance of social evaluation is proposed and the results of a preliminary test are presented. A contingency approach for studying the effects of anonymity is presented and the implications for future research and for practice are discussed.
Keywords: anonymity; computer-based collaborative work; group decision making; group support systems

Understanding Organizational Dynamics of IT-Enabled Change: A Multimedia Simulation Approach - Manzoni, Jean-Francois; Angehrn, Albert A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1997)
Successful implementation of IT-enabled change requires good management of the change process and of the various sources of resistance that typically accompany the introduction of such change. As a result, helping managers better understand the dynamics of organizational processes is an important objective for IS and IT educators. The EIS Simulation is a new computer-based multimedia simulation that allows managers to experience the process of introducing an EIS in a fictitious organization. It has been used extensively over the last two years with groups of management students and executives. The paper presents the simulation and discusses its potential pedagogical benefits, possible extensions, and use in a research context. More generally, the EIS Simulation provides a first step in the development of a new generation of pedagogical tools: computer-based organizational games exploiting the potential of multimedia and object-oriented technology to provide managers with realistic experiential learning environments.
Keywords: adoption of information technology; change management; experiential learning; implementation of innovations; multimedia; simulation

Collaborative Business Engineering with Animated Electronic Meetings - De Vreede, Gert-Jan (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1997)
In an action research study at the Amsterdam Municipal Police Force, a collaborative business engineering approach was employed to explore the joint application of group support systems and animation techniques to support stakeholder involvement in organizational change processes. Stakeholders constructed and evaluated static and dynamic models of the police force's current and future work processes. Findings illustrate the complimentary potential of the two technologies to support stakeholder involvement in terms of efficiency, resulting model quality, and stakeholder satisfaction with process and technologies. The study illustrates the value of an incremental modeling strategy, the involvement of a substantial number of stakeholders, and the need to keep the momentum in the process. Issues for further research concern the development of a collaborative modeling environment that allows for group enabled model construction and viewing and the automatic transformation between different types of models.
Keywords: collaborative business engineering; group modeling; group support systems; simulation

Supporting Inspections with an Electronic Meeting System - Van Genuchten, Michiel; Cornelissen, Wieger; Van Dijk, C O R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1997)
Fagan inspections are a structured review of development documents that consists of individual preparation, a meeting, and rework by the author of the document. The meeting is used to log the defects found in preparation and to search for more defects. The effectiveness and efficiency of the meeting are typically low compared with those of preparation. This paper describes the use of an electronic meeting system (EMS) to support the logging meeting of a total of fourteen electronic inspections in Philips Medical Systems and Baan Company. The results indicate that the electronic logging meeting contributed much more to the overall result of the inspection than was the case in a traditional inspection. The results have implications for both software inspections and EMS. The implications for EMS discussed in this paper are opportunities for the use of EMS in routine meetings, increased use of meeting metrics, and the benefits of fixed-format input in an EMS.
Keywords: electronic meeting systems; software engineering; software inspections

Enabling the Effective Involvement of Multiple Users: Methods and Tools for Collaborative Software Engineering - Dean, Douglas L; Lee, James D; Pendergast, Mark O; Hickey, Ann M; Nunamaker Jr, Jay F (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1997)
The paper presents results of ongoing research to support effective user involvement during systems development projects. The Collaborative Software Engineering Methodology is presented as a framework that contains mechanisms to support three layers of user involvement: selected user representatives, user groups, and the broader user community. Productivity and user participation of traditional group meetings have been limited by chauffeured facilitation and by support of single-user tools designed for analysts rather than users. The paper introduces electronic meeting systems (EMS) modeling tools designed to allow users to work in parallel to contribute directly during meetings. These tools are easy to use while containing support features traditionally associated with CASE tools. The methodology includes a sequence of requirements abstractions that users engage directly including activity models, data models, scenarios, system use eases, and prototypes. This methodology is designed to help organizations respond to today's rapidly changing information processing needs.
Keywords: activity modeling; data modeling; electronic meeting systems; enterprise analysis; group support systems; groupware; IDEF; information systems requirements; JAD; software engineering

ARBAS: A Formal Language to Support Argumentation in Network-Based Organizations - Tung X, Bui; Bodart, Francois; Pai-Chun, M A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1997)
This paper proposes a formal language to support and document argumentation, claims, decision and negotiation, and coordination in network-based organizations. The purpose of the language, once implemented in the organization's Intranet, is to promote communication using structured arguments, claims and justified decisions and to preserve this information as corporate memory. We contend that organization effectiveness can be achieved by continuous exchange of information, arguments, and joint agreements on actions with appropriate knowledge of the organizational decision-making context. As a mechanism for group decision and negotiation support and as an organizational repository, the proposed language is constructed based on supporting discussions that focus on the relationship between actions and the resources required to implement these actions.
Keywords: argumentation theory; group decision and negotiation support; organizational memory

Communication and Coordination in the Virtual Office - Fritz, Mary Beth Watson; Narasimhan, Sridhar; Hyeun-Suk, Rhee (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
As information technology becomes more pervasive, the structure of the traditional work environment is changing. A number of alternatives are emerging where work is performed at remote locations. Existing work practices and managerial strategies are often not appropriate in this environment. In particular, traditional office communication with coworkers and management, which is often dependent on physical proximity, is disrupted. In this study, individual satisfaction with office communication in the telecommuting and conventional work environments is compared through a study of telecommuters and a comparison group of non-telecommuters in nine firms. We investigate the influence of certain organizational factors, such as job characteristics, IT support, and coordination methods, on satisfaction with office communication in the two work environments. We find telecommuters report higher satisfaction with office communication. Our findings indicate that task predictability, IT support, and electronic coordination have similar influences for both groups. We discuss implications of these findings for research and practice.
Keywords: distributed work; distributed work environments; electronic coordination; organizational communication; telecommuting

Is Anybody Out There? - Jarvenpaa, Sirkka L; Knoll, Kathleen; Leidner, Dorothy E (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
A global virtual team is an example of a boundaryless network organization form where a temporary team is assembled on an as-needed basis for the duration of a task and staffed by members from different countries. In such teams, coordination is accomplished via trust and shared communication systems. The focus of the reported study was to explore the antecedents of trust in a global virtual-team setting. Seventy-five teams, consisting of four to six members residing in different countries, interacted and worked together for eight weeks. The two-week trust-building exercises did have a significant effect on the team members' perceptions of the other members' ability, integrity, and benevolence. In the early phases of teamwork, team trust was predicted strongest by perceptions of other team members' integrity, and weakest by perceptions of their benevolence. The effect of other members' perceived ability on trust decreased over time. The members' own propensity to trust had a significant, though unchanging, effect on trust. A qualitative analysis of six teams' electronic mail messages explored strategies that were used by the three highest trust teams, but were used infrequently or not at all by the three lowest trust teams. The strategies suggest the presence of "swift" trust. The paper advances a research model for explaining trust in global virtual teams.
Keywords: antecedents of trust; global teams; global virtual teams; swift trust; transnational teams; trust; virtual organization; virtual teams

Lessons from the Early Adopters of Web Groupware - Dennis, Alan R; Pootheri, Sridar K; Natarajan, Vijaya L (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
The Internet and World Wide Web hold many possibilities for virtual communities. In this paper we describe the development of a first-generation Web-groupware system called TCBWorks that enables anyone with a Web browser to use groupware. We discuss the design strategy, the overall design, and the technical architecture, and contrast it with other forms of groupware. We then discuss the results of a series of interviews with users in four organizations and a survey of sixty-nine organizations to better understand how organizations are using Web groupware and the advantages and disadvantages they encountered.
Keywords: adoption of information technology; groupware; Web groupware

Emerging Electronic Partnerships: Antecedents and Dimensions of EDI Use from the Supplier's Perspective - Hart, Paul J; Saunders, Carol S (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
The diffusion of network technologies and the developing interest in emerging organizational forms suggest that researchers ought to pay more attention to the development of "electronic partnerships." This preliminary investigation tests a theoretical framework relating two pivotal themes, power and trust, to the use of electronic data interchange (EDI). Separate models were tested incorporating two dimensions of EDI use: volume of transactions and diversity of EDI transaction sets. The relationships among supplier dependence, customer power, and EDI use were different for volume and diversity, suggesting unique conditions that predict each dimension. Interestingly, power was negatively related to the volume of EDI transactions indicating that, while electronic networks may facilitate easier exchanges, they may not necessarily lead to increases in the frequency of exchanges. The relationships among commitment, trust, and EDI use were also different for volume and diversity. Trust was related to diversity but not volume. Moreover, trust was related to increases in diversity of EDI use, in contrast to power, which was negatively related to diversity. This latter finding may offer an important prescription for managers who seek to expand the effective use of EDI and for IT researchers who need to focus on the role of trust in supporting information exchange between electronic partners.
Keywords: diffusion of information technology; electronic data interchange; electronic partnerships; information partnerships

Software Reuse: Survey and Research Directions - Yongbeom, Kim; Stohr, Edward A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
Software reuse is the use of software resources from all stages of the software development process in new applications. Given the high cost and difficulty of developing high-quality software, the idea of capitalizing on previous software investments is appealing. However, software reuse has not been as effective as expected and has not been very broadly or systematically used in industry. This paper surveys recent software-reuse research using a framework that helps identify and organize the many factors that must be considered to achieve the benefits of software reuse in practice. We argue that software reuse needs to be viewed in the context of a total systems approach that addresses a broad range of technical, economic, managerial, organizational, and legal issues and conclude with a summary of the major research issues in each of these areas.
Keywords: reuse metrics; reuse process; reuse technologies; software reuse

Project Memory: Information Management for Project Teams - Weiser, Mark; Morrison, Joline (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
Modern organizations are successfully using project teams to address complex tasks. Yet these teams often use approaches for project data management that may not capture project processes, contexts, rationales, or artifacts in a way that enables new project members to familiarize themselves quickly with the project history. Project information is rarely captured, retained, or indexed so that people external to the project can retrieve and apply it to future tasks. To address the issue of capturing a comprehensive project history that can subsequently be retrieved and applied to current problems, a generalizable object-oriented data model is developed. It decomposes project information into five discrete classes: projects, users, events, meetings, and documents. Through inheritance and domain references, the model describes the people, temporal events (such as meetings or single agenda items within a meeting), and archival documents that are created within a project or support some aspect of the project. These project items can be retrieved based on either contextual information (such as the dates they were created or last revised, who created them, or the projects they pertain to) or user-supplied descriptive keywords. Hypertext-like links can also be created to associate related items. Based on this model, a prototype system, Project Memory, has been developed to validate the model structure and system requirements.
Keywords: knowledge management; organizational learning; organizational memory; team memory

User Interface Consistency Across End-User Applications: The Effects on Mental Models - Satzinger, John W; Olfman, Lorne (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
Consistent user interfaces across applications are thought to facilitate transfer of learning because a user can draw on existing knowledge when using a new application. But despite the interface consistency guidelines and standards that are based on transfer of learning assumptions, few studies have investigated the effects of interface consistency, especially when a user interacts with multiple applications. The user's knowledge of a computer application is often described as a mental model. This study tested whether the consistency of the user interface across applications affects mental-model development when a user learns and uses multiple applications. One hundred and fourteen participants learned two prototype cooperative work applications in a controlled laboratory setting. Interface consistency across applications was manipulated for two attributes commonly referred to in interface design guidelines: the visual appearance of the display screen and the action language syntax. As hypothesized, inconsistent action language syntax across applications resulted in more user actions to complete tasks. Inconsistent visual appearance, however, resulted in greater accuracy, which was surprising. This study provides support for the consistency guideline for action language syntax, but a distinctive visual appearance rather than a consistent one might help the user form more accurate mental models when initially learning multiple applications. Schema theory is used to explain both the expected and the unexpected results. Implications and promising research directions are proposed.
Keywords: interface consistency; mental model; user interface; user learning

The Impact of Socialization on the Role Adjustment of Information Systems Professionals - King, Ruth C; Sethi, Vikram (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
The study of socialization and its practices has only recently been applied to organizations to investigate the manner in which new employees adjust to corporate culture. Past studies have examined the nature of human-resource development from an individual perspective. Research in socialization practices represents an organizational approach toward understanding the manner in which new employees adjust to their roles. This study examines the impact of socialization practices on the nature of this role adjustment with respect to information systems professionals. One hundred and sixty newly hired IS personnel in five different cities were surveyed to examine the relationship between organizational socialization tactics and adjustment variables such as role orientation, role ambiguity, and role clarity. Results suggest that socialization practices affect professional role adjustment. Specifically, institutionalized socialization tactics lead to a custodial role orientation and individualized socialization tactics produce an innovative role orientation. In addition, institutionalized tactics are shown to reduce role ambiguity and role conflict in new employees. Implications for human-resource management of IS personnel and future research in this area are discussed.
Keywords: information systems personnel; role adjustment; socialization; training

The Design and Validation of a Hybrid Information System for the Auditor's Going Concern Decision - Lenard, Mary Jane; Madey, Gregory R; Alam, Pervaiz (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
Decision making in a semistructured environment often involves the use of quantitative, structured analysis along with the qualitative judgment of an expert. Decision support systems and expert systems are often developed to assist in this judgment process. The hybrid information system described in this paper combines a statistical model with a rule-based expert system in order to integrate the quantitative and qualitative aspects of decision making. The GC Advisor hybrid system is designed for use by auditors to assess the ability of the client firm to continue as a going concern. The guidelines for expert system validation given in previous literature are then applied to the validation of GC Advisor.
Keywords: auditor's going concern assessment; expert systems; hybrid information systems; system validation

Editorial Introduction - Zwass, Vladimir (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
THREE PAPERS THAT OPEN THIS ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL, and its fifteenth annual volume, address cognitive aspects of information systems development. In the first of them, K.D. Schenk, Nicholas P. Vitalari, and K. Shannon Davis investigate what sets apart expert systems analysts from their novice counterparts. The proper and creative analysis of information systems requirements is, as we know well, a crucial determinant of the system's success (or failure). The authors find a rich set of qualitative distinctions in the cognitive operation of the novices as compared with the experienced analysts. Their paper clearly generates not only a set of results and an agenda for further research, but also a specific program for analyst training. Teresa M. Shaft and Iris Vessey study the relevance of the knowledge of the application domain to programmers' performance. The authors find that this knowledge is indeed important. By implication, this is particularly so during system maintenance, and the results are directly applicable to the massive maintenance work resulting from the Y2K and the euro issues. Especially in the work on the second of the massive problems, it might be dangerous indeed to use programmers who are only somewhat familiar with the application domain. In the third paper of the series, Janette W. Moody, J. Ellis Blanton, and Paul H. Cheney find that the cognitive interview offers a set of advantages during the requirements-elicitation phase of system development as compared with more traditional interviewing techniques. Perhaps the time has come to include this technique in the analyst's toolbox. The theme of software requirements determination is continued in the next paper. Rosalie Ocker, Jerry Fjermestad, Starr Roxanne Hiltz, and Kenneth Johnson study experimentally how the mode of communication adopted by a group that is determining system requirements affects the quality of the solution and the analysis process. Among the four modes investigated, the one combining face-to-face interaction with asynchronous computer conferencing is found to have the most advantages. Computer-mediated communication is the subject of the next work as well, by Bernard C.Y. Tan, Kwok-Kee Wei, Richard T. Watson, and Rita M. Walczuch. The paper presents a cross-national study investigating the influence of group support system use on the status effects for two different task types. The researchers find that the status effect is reduced when the computerized medium is used, although the status influence is more persistent in the culture with a higher power distance. Two subsequent studies deal with software systems. Qing Hu, Robert Plant, and David B. Hertz propose a theoretical model for software costs estimation based on treating software development as an economic production process. When applied to a limited previously published data set, the technique shows advantages compared with almost all recognized estimation techniques (and is comparable to one of them). The method is interesting and certainly warrants further investigation. Alfred Taudes offers an option-pricing approach to the valuation of the flexibility of an MIS platform. The work represents a new approach to a problem that has become increasingly important as organizations seek an information system platform that can be relatively easily retargeted at new competitive opportunities or threats. Similar in general flavor to the immediately preceding work is the novel approach to MIS-enabled business process reengineering offered by Levent V. Orman. The author proposes the use of decision models to gauge the organizational impact of a given information technology initiative and to select the reengineering effort that would best use the potential of information technology. In the closing paper of the issue, James Y.L. Thong and Chee-Sing Yap test the applicability to the MIS domain of a theory of ethical decision making that has been developed by the marketing discipline. This perhaps most comprehensive theory in the management-related fields is only partly tested here. However, the results obtained by applying the theory to the perennial issue of softlifting show the applicability of the theory in our field and should certainly encourage further investigation of what may emerge as the encompassing theory in the ethical domain of MIS. As we open the fifteenth year of our publication, it gives me great pleasure once again to thank our Editorial Board, authors, readers, and the entire MIS community for their contributions and support. Particular thanks go to the Journal's reviewers, the primary guarantors of its quality. VLADIMIR ZWASS Editor-in-Chief Key words and phrases : creativity in problem solving , information requirements , information systems development , novice and expert problem-solving , systems analysis , systems analyst education
Keywords: creativity in problem solving; information requirements; information systems development; novice and expert problem-solving; systems analysis; systems analyst education

Differences Between Novice and Expert Systems Analysts: What Do We Know and What Do We Do? - Schenk, K D; Vitalari, Nicholas P; Davis, K Shannon (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
Due to increased organizational dependence on information systems technology, the effectiveness of the systems analyst is more crucial today than ever. Despite technological advances that have increased the number and quality of tools available to systems analysts, the individual analyst's problem-solving skills remain key to defining good systems requirements. Understanding how expert analysts approach the requirements analysis task may provide insights for improving the effectiveness of novice analysts. This paper examines differences in the problem-solving approaches of novice and expert systems analysts during an information requirements task. Specific weaknesses that set novice and expert analysts apart are identified, and techniques that may be used to strengthen novice skills are suggested. This research supports the current literature on creativity techniques as a strategy for strengthening system analysis skills.
Keywords: creativity in problem solving; information requirements; information systems development; novice and expert problem-solving; systems analysis; systems analyst education

The Relevance of Application Domain Knowledge: Characterizing the Computer Program Comprehension Process - Shaft, Teresa M; Vessey, Iris (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
Recent research using professional programmers suggests that knowledge of the application domain plays a major role in the cognitive processes they use to understand computer programs. In general, programmers use a more topdown comprehension process when working in familiar application domains, and a more bottom-up process in unfamiliar domains. The present study builds on that research by further characterizing comprehension processes. The findings show that: (1) certain programmers use different types of comprehension processes depending on their familiarity with the application domain (flexible approach), while others do not (top-down and bottom-up approaches); (2) familiarity with the application domain and the use of a particular comprehension process have marked effects on references programmers make to both application and programming domain knowledge; and (3) programmers who use a flexible comprehension process achieved the highest levels of comprehension. The present research also examines some cognitive determinants of the comprehension process. The findings highlight the need to consider application, as well as programming, domain knowledge as areas of computer programming expertise, to investigate factors influencing use of specific comprehension processes, and to develop tools to support flexible comprehension processes.
Keywords: application domain; computer program comprehension; metacognition; program understanding; system maintenance

A Theoretically Grounded Approach to Assist Memory Recall During Information Requirements Determination - Moody, Janette W; Blanton, J Ellis; Cheney, Paul H (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
The interview has long been a part of the system professional's repertoire of elicitation techniques, used extensively in both requirements analysis and knowledge acquisition. Unfortunately, although interviewing is a widely recommended elicitation technique, the literature offers little in the way of theoretically grounded support or advice on exactly how the interview should be conducted and what format should be used. This paper reports the findings of a study that compared the efficiency and effectiveness of the cognitive interview with the standard information requirements interview in an experiment using reference librarians as interviewees. The cognitive interview was found to be both more effective and more efficient than standard interviewing techniques in eliciting episodic knowledge from reference librarians. Use of the cognitive interview resulted in a richer recall, in terms of both breadth and depth, of details relevant to the task domain.
Keywords: cognitive interview; communication tools; information requirements determination; information systems development tools; interviewing

Effects of Four Modes of Group Communication on the Outcomes of Software Requirements Determination - Ocker, Rosalie; Fjermestdad, Jerry; Hiltz, Starr Roxanne; Johnson, Kenneth (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
Research on computer-mediated communication and group support systems has focused on the study of a single mode of communication technology in comparison to unsupported face-to-face (FtF) groups. However, as organizations combine traditional FtF meetings with a variety of anytime/anyplace communication technologies to support collaborative work, the need to study these new forms of interaction grows greater. This experiment builds on prior work by comparing the effectiveness of four modes of communication for groups working on the upstream phases of software development: (1) face-to-face, (2) synchronous computer conferencing, (3) asynchronous computer conferencing, and (4) combined FtF and asynchronous computer conferencing. Teams of graduate students determined the requirements for an automated post office as a course assignment over a period of two weeks. The creativity and quality of solutions produced by groups in the combined condition were higher than those in the remaining three communication modes. Combined groups were generally more satisfied with their solutions, although no differences among conditions were found regarding satisfaction with the process used to accomplish work.
Keywords: computer conferencing; computer-mediated communication (CMC); creativity; group support systems; requirements analysis

Reducing Status Effects with Computer-Mediated Communication: Evidence from Two Distinct National Cultures - Tan, Bernard C Y; Kwok-Kee, Wei; Watson, Richard T; Walczuch, Rita M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
Matching laboratory experiments were conducted in two distinct national cultures to investigate whether computer-mediated communication (CMC) can reduce status effects during group communication in both national cultures. Three independent variables were studied: national culture (Singapore versus U.S.), task type (intellective versus preference), and communication medium (unsupported versus CMC). Three different facets of status effects were measured as dependent variables: status influence, sustained influence, and perceived influence. Singapore groups reported higher sustained influence than U.S. groups. Preference task groups experienced higher status influence and sustained influence than intellective task groups. Unsupported groups also had higher status influence and sustained influence compared to CMC groups. In addition, Singapore groups that completed the preference task in the unsupported setting reported higher perceived influence than groups under other treatments. These results demonstrate that CMC appears to be able to reduce status effects during group communication, both in Singapore and in the United States. This is especially true when groups are working on a preference task. Moreover, status influence appears to be more sustainable in Singapore groups, where group members appear to be more conscious of its presence, than in U.S. groups.
Keywords: communication medium; computer-mediated communication (CMC); national culture; status effects; task type

Software Cost Estimation Using Economic Production Models - Qing, Hu; Plant, Robert T; Hertz, David B (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
One of the major difficulties in controlling software development project cost overruns and schedule delays has been developing practical and accurate software cost models. Software development could be modeled as an economic production process, therefore the authors propose a theoretical approach to software cost modeling. Specifically, they present the Minimum Software Cost Model (MSCM), derived from economic production theory and systems optimization. The MSCM model is compared with other widely used software cost models, such as COCOMO and SLIM, on the basis of goodness of fit and quality of estimation using software project data sets available in the literature. Judged by both criteria, the MSCM model is comparable to, if not better than, the SLIM, and significantly better than the rest of the models. In addition, the MSCM model provides some insights about the behavior of software development processes and environment, which could be used to formulate guidelines for better software project management polices and practices.
Keywords: economic production theory; software cost estimation; software cost models; software production; software project management

Software Growth Options - Taudes, Alfred (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
Today's business environment is characterized by global competition and buyers' markets. Under such conditions, flexible response to changes in the environment is a key success factor for any firm. Consequently, there is increasing pressure for information systems to be readily adaptable to changing business processes. This paper investigates ways of introducing this aspect of IS extendability into quantitative IT investment decision models via the application of real options models. In particular, it examines methods for evaluating sequential exchange options in order to obtain estimates for the value of software growth options that is, IS functions that are embedded in an IT platform and that can be employed once the particular base system is installed and their use is economically justified. On the basis of these models, the authors look at the determinants of the value of software growth options and draw general conclusions with regard to decision making in the field of IT investment.
Keywords: capital budgeting; cost/benefit analysis of information systems; MIS platforms; real options

A Model Management Approach to Business Process Reengineering - Orman, Levent V (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
A prescriptive and analytical approach is taken to business process reengineering (BPR). The objectives are to provide precise guidelines for process redesign to take full advantage of the efficiencies created by information technologies, and to develop techniques to evaluate alternative structures. A decision-making paradigm of organizations is adopted, and organizational processes are viewed as collections of decision models. Such a simplified analytical model provides an effective methodology to describe and quantify the impact of information technology on organizational structures and processes. The model explains and quantifies a variety of organizational issues such as: the significance of hierarchical structures in organizations, the need for business process reengineering after the introduction of information technology, and the exact conditions under which information technology may (and should) lead to more or less centralized structures. Reoptimization of business processes after the introduction of information technology is formulated as a dynamic programming problem.
Keywords: business process reengineering; decision models; hierarchies; model complexity; model management; organization design

Testing an Ethical Decision-Making Theory: The Case of Softlifting - Thong, James Y L; Chee-sing, Yap (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
There is a lack of both theoretical and empirical research on the process of ethical decision making in the domain of information systems (IS). As a step in this direction, the authors describe and test a general ethical decision-making theory developed in the marketing discipline. They conducted a study on the ethical decision-making process of 243 entry-level IS professionals with regard to softlifting--that is, illegal copying of software for personal use. The results show support for the applicability of the tested ethical decision-making theory to the domain of IS, specifically in the context of softlifting. Entry-level IS professionals were found to use both deontological and teleological evaluations to arrive at an ethical judgment of a moral issue. Subsequently, moral intention to pursue softlifting behavior is primarily determined by the ethical judgment. These findings have implications for both research and practice.
Keywords: computer ethics; ethical decision-making; softlifting; software piracy

The Formal and Systematic Specification of Market Structures and Trading Services - Reck, Martin (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
This paper supplies methodological support for trading system development. It provides a formal framework for the systematic definition of market structures and the specification of trading services. Market structure describes the interaction among traders, and trading services identifies the trading system interface and the description of the system behavior. The framework provides guidance in applying "trace specifications" as a formal description technique for both market structure and trading services. It also details how to formally assess market structure and trading service properties. Moreover, the framework introduces concepts for building market structure taxonomies that support the systematic search and development of alternative forms of markets. The taxonomies are collections of trace specifications for market structures with specialization and extension relationships defined between them. Improvements in market quality and efficiency should result from such a disciplined and systematic approach to market structure and trading services definition and implementation.
Keywords: electronic trading; financial markets; market structure; specification languages

Culturally Induced Information Impactedness: A Prescription for Failure in Software Ventures - Matheson, Lesley R; Tarjan, Robert E (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
The impact of effective information flow in software ventures is analyzed through a recent case in which a hot, lucrative technology was lost on its way to the marketplace. The failure occurred despite the fact that the venture had many components crucial to success, including a proprietary intellectual property position, enormous market demand, a well-qualified, committed team, and sufficient funding. One reason for this failure is the lack of information flows among several parties critical to the success of the venture. This case suggests that in software markets that operate at breakneck pace and have short development cycles, effective information flow is a first-order priority. These blockages in information flows can stem from the nature of the cultures that are created to produce software ideas, especially proprietary technologies. The case also suggests that information can be affected by the clash between U.S. software market characteristics and Japanese business culture. Fortunately, there are inexpensive solutions that can substantially improve the return on investment, especially foreign investment, in new software technologies.
Keywords: digital watermarking; information sharing; software development; software products

Restructuring Institutional Block Trading: An Overview of the OptiMark System - Clemons, Eric K; Weber, Bruce W (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
Financial markets perform many functions, but principal among them is to bring together buyers and sellers and to provide a mechanism for price discovery. Information technology has had a number of significant impacts on financial markets, enabling enormous increases in volumes and more sophisticated trading techniques, such as program trading and index arbitrage. Despite improvements, some large institutional investors identify shortcomings in today's markets that make the process of buying or selling large, block orders time-consuming and costly. To address these concerns, a new trading system, OptiMark, has been built around several innovations, including (1) a graphical user front end for depicting trading preferences, and (2) a back end built on high-performance computers that process expressions of trading interest according to a price-setting algorithm intended to achieve superior outcomes for traders. OptiMark provides a means for more cost-effective block trading and is expected to contribute to regulatory objectives. This paper details the operations of OptiMark, examines its adoption potential, and assesses the impact it may have on block trading, broker-dealer intermediaries, and the equities markets.
Keywords: electronic block trading; financial markets; market structure

Information Systems Outsourcing: A Study of Pre-Event Firm Characteristics - Smith, Michael Alan; Mitra, Sabyasachi; Narasimhan, Sridhar (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
Researchers in information systems (IS) propose several reasons why firms outsource their IS, including reducing costs, generating cash, focusing on core competencies, and gaining access to technical expertise. The authors examine support for these assertions by comparing the financial characteristics of firms that enter into large-scale IS outsourcing agreements with those of other firms in their respective industries prior to outsourcing. A year-by-year comparison around the time of outsourcing indicates that firms that outsource their IS have significantly lower overhead costs, lower cash reserves, and higher debt before the outsourcing event. Analysis of changes in financial characteristics reveals an increase in long-term debt and financial leverage and declining growth rates prior to the outsourcing event. The authors argue that firms enter into large-scale IS outsourcing agreements primarily to reduce costs and to generate cash. Consequently, they are more likely to outsource when they have lower cash reserves, higher debt, or declining growth. The management objectives stated in the annual reports of these companies at the time of outsourcing corroborate their major findings.
Keywords: information systems governance; information systems outsourcing; information systems technology

Determinants of Information Center Success - Essex, Patricia A; Magal, Simha R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
This paper examines determinants of information center (IC) success, defined as user satisfaction. The determinants are tested for their relationships to IC success and one another in order to evaluate which have a direct impact on success and which operate indirectly. Prior studies have not looked for relationships among factors, omitting potentially helpful information. Data were gathered from 151 users representing three organizations and were used to develop a model of IC success. The model is consistent with Anthony's levels of management activity in that the determinants correspond to specific levels of planning and control. The determinants and their corresponding management activity levels are as follows: IC role definition is associated with strategic planning, while management control encompasses a variety of services, staff infrastructure, and organizational commitment. Operational control, in the IC environment, is concerned with quality of user-developed applications, quality of individual staff, quality of services, facilitation of end-user computing, and user self-sufficiency. This model of IC success can guide researchers studying information centers and, especially, managers charged with establishing and operating information centers.
Keywords: end-user computing; information center; information system success; management levels

The Design, Development, and Validation of a Knowledge-Based Organizational Learning Support System - Hine, Michael J; Goul, Michael (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
It is generally agreed that organizational learning involves the processes of developing and exchanging organizational members' underlying opinions, assumptions, and interpretations of the environment. This exploratory research applies innovative information technology (IT) to support and facilitate organizational learning. The organizational learning process is defined, and inhibitors to the process are identified and translated into system requirements for the design and development of the Organizational Learning Support System (OLSS) toolkit. The OLSS toolkit uses a knowledge-based system to elicit initial interpretations of the environment from organizational members and automatically detects where organizational members' interpretations conflict and where they are in consensus. It uses a heuristic approach to order the presentation of the conflicts to the organizational members. A validation in the form of a pilot study is included.
Keywords: knowledge-based decision support systems; organizational decision support systems; organizational learning

The Effects of Time Pressure and Completeness of Information on Decision Making - Ahituv, Niv; Igbaria, Magid; Sella, Aviem (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
The Israeli Air Force (IAF) has developed a simulation system to train its top commanders in how to use defensive resources in the face of an aerial attack by enemy combat aircraft. During the simulation session, the commander in charge allocates airborne and standby resources and dispatches or diverts aircraft to intercept intruders. Seventy-four simulation sessions were conducted in order to examine the effects of time pressure and completeness of information on the performance of twenty-nine top IAF commanders. Variables examined were: (1) display of complete versus incomplete information, (2) time-constrained decision making versus unlimited decision time, and (3) the difference in performance between top strategic commanders and mid-level field commanders. The authors' results show that complete information usually improved performance. However, field commanders (as opposed to top strategic commanders) did not improve their performance when presented with complete information under pressure of time. Time pressure usually, but not always, impaired performance. Top commanders tended to make fewer changes in previous decisions than did field commanders.
Keywords: decision making; effectiveness of incomplete information; information effectiveness; time-constrained decision making; value of information

Information Is What You Make of It: The Influence of Group History and Computer Support on Information Sharing, Decision Quality, and Member Perceptions - Mennecke, Brian E; Valacich, Joseph S (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
Researchers have proposed that the contradictions observed between past group support system (GSS) laboratory and field research may be partially accounted for by the ad-hoc nature of the groups that are often used in the laboratory. To examine this, a laboratory experiment examining the influence of group history (i.e., established versus ad-hoc groups) and the level of computer support (i.e., communicating via a computer-mediated system versus face-to-face) was conducted. Dependent variables examined in the research include information-sharing performance, decision quality, and member perceptions. Subjects completed a hidden profile task--a task where some information is held by all group members prior to the meeting, while other information is held only by a subset of the group. As expected, established groups discussed less unique information than ad-hoc groups. In addition, information sharing was positively related to the quality of group decisions. Members of established groups were more satisfied than members of ad-hoc groups; members using the computer-mediated system were less satisfied than those communicating face-to-face. In addition, group cohesion was positively related to satisfaction and decision quality. The results are discussed in the context of prior theory and research. Opportunities for future research are also described.
Keywords: decision-group history; group cohesion; group support systems; information sharing

Enhancing User Understanding in a Decision Support System: A Theoretical Basis and Framework - Steiger, David M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
The primary purpose of decision support systems (DSS) is to help the decision maker develop an understanding of the ill-structured, complex environment represented by the model. This paper concentrates on understanding the modeled environment through model analysis. Specifically, the purpose of this paper is to propose a framework for model analysis based on Perkins's theory of understanding and its basic premise (knowledge as design) and basic components (purpose, models, and arguments). This framework encourages enhanced user understanding in a DSS via the synergistic combination and integration of: (1) cognitive science (theory of understanding), (2) artificial intelligence (machine learning, knowledge extraction, and expert systems), (3) model analysis (deductive and inductive), and (4) DSS (model management, instance management, and knowledge-base management).
Keywords: artificial intelligence; decision support systems; design theory; model analysis; model management systems; post-optimality analysis; sensitivity analysis; theory of understanding

An Assessment of Group Support Systems Experimental Research: Methodology and Results - Fjermestdad, Jerry; Hiltz, Starr Roxanne (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
By mid-1998, approximately 200 different controlled experiments had been published in 230 articles in refereed journals or major conference proceedings, which examined processes and outcomes in computer-supported group decision making. This paper is a concise overview of what has been studied and how: the systems, independent, intervening, adaptation, and dependent variables, manipulated or measured, and experimental procedures employed. Part I categorizes the contextual and intervening factors. Part II analyzes 1,582 hypotheses resulting from pairings of independent and dependent variables. The results show that the modal outcome for group support systems (GSS) compared with face-to-face (FtF) methods is "no difference," while the overall percentage of positive effects for hypotheses that compare GSS with FtF is a disappointing 16.6 percent. Experiments with seven to ten groups per treatment condition working on idea-generation tasks and using GSS technology show an improvement up to 29.0 percent. These results are moderated by technology, process structure, communication mode, group factors, task type, the number of experimental groups per treatment condition, and the type of dependent variable measured. The purpose of this paper is to aid the GSS researcher by presenting detailed results of what has been studied and found in previous experiments, along with a discussion of what needs to be studied.
Keywords: experimental research; group support systems (GSS); research methodologies

A Technology Transition Model Derived from Field Investigation of GSS Use Aboard the U.S.S. CORONADO - Briggs, Robert O; Adkins, Mark; Mittleman, Daniel D; Kruse, John; Miller, Scot; Nunamaker Jr, Jay F (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
There are several thousand group support systems (GSS) installations worldwide, and, while that number is growing, GSS has not yet achieved critical mass. One reason may be that it can take one to three years for an organization to complete a transition to GSS. Studying GSS transition in the field could yield insights that would allow for faster, lower-risk transitions elsewhere. This article presents a thirty-two-month qualitative field investigation of an effort to introduce GSS into the daily work of the staff of the U.S. Navy's Commander, Third Fleet. Using the principles of action research, the project began with interventions based on the precepts of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). The goal of the interventions was to engender sufficient acceptance for GSS to create a self-sustaining, growing community of GSS users. Throughout the study, building on a base of experience developed in other private- and public-sector transition projects, we revised and extended TAM based on insights that emerged in the field. The resulting model, the Technology Transition Model (TTM), frames acceptance as a multiplicative function of the magnitude and frequency of the perceived net value of a proposed change, moderated by the perceived net value associated with the transition period itself. TTF frames net value as having a number of dimensions, including cognitive, economic, political, social, affective, and physical. It posits that cognitive net value derives from at least three sources: changes in access, technical, and conceptual attention loads. GSS transition proceeded at different speeds in different segments of the Third Fleet; the intelligence and battle staffs became self-sustaining within weeks, while others are still not self-sustaining. TTM appears to explain the differences that emerged in the Navy community. The articles presents TAM, then argues the propositions of TTM. It then presents background information about Third Fleet, and describes critical incidents in the transition effort that give rise to the model. It summarizes the lessons learned in the field by comparing the differing transition trajectories among Fleet staff segments in light of the model.
Keywords: electronic meeting systems technology adoption; field studies; group support systems; qualitative research; technology acceptance; technology diffusion; telecommunications technologies; Technology Transition Model

Exploring the Application and Acceptance of Group Support Systems in Africa - De Vreede, Gert-Jan; Jones, Noel; Mgaya, Rabson J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1998)
Cross-cultural group support systems (GSS) field studies are scarce. Although the state of knowledge and theory development in this area warrants a focus on descriptive field explorations, most cross-cultural GSS research has taken place in laboratory environments. The study reported here represents the first detailed descriptive field study of GSS application in Africa. A grounded theory approach was used to collect and analyze data on eleven projects in which GSS meetings were organized in Malawi, Zimbabwe, and Tanzania. From the data emerged a model of GSS acceptance in the cultures investigated that extends the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) in terms of a specification of a number of relevant external factors. These factors include the endorsement of top management, computer literacy, oral communication preference, referent power, and satisfaction with use. Furthermore, the findings suggest that there is potential for applying GSS in Africa to support capacity-building efforts, which tops the agenda of international development agencies.
Keywords: cross-cultural studies; field study; group support systems; grounded theory research; technology acceptance

An Empirical Assessment of the Organization of Transnational Information Systems - King, William R; Sethi, Vikram (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
The objective of this study is to aid our understanding of the organization of information systems in organizations whose activities cross national boundaries. The increasing globalization of business has led firms to seek new, and more appropriate, organizational structures, processes, and cultures. This has required the establishment of appropriate information technology platforms to coordinate business processes and to provide coalition mechanisms. This study is based on five important dimensions of transnational strategy--the configuration of value chain activities, the coordination of value chain activities, centralization, strategic alliances, and market integration--that define a comprehensive taxonomy of transnational strategy. A basic proposition is that a firm's transnational strategy will be reflected in the design of its information systems. To address this proposition, a two-stage questionnaire study was conducted. Respondents included 150 multinational corporations from 20 countries and 25 industries. The five dimensions of transnational strategy were operationalized, and the analysis established the validity of a taxonomy that is better suited to the study of systems-related issues in MNCs. This taxonomy was used to test hypotheses related to the organization of transnational systems. These hypotheses were stated in terms of IS organizational, strategic, architectural, and personnel dimensions. The results of the study support the proposition that the organizational characteristics of centralization, dispersal, and coordination are differentially reflected in the IT configurations of various kinds of MNCs. In a centrally coordinated business structure, IT is also globally centralized. In addition, local autonomy was shown to affect the deployment of IT in global firms.
Keywords: global information systems management; multinational corporations; strategic information systems

Effect of Partnership Quality on IS Outsourcing Success: Conceptual Framework and Empirical Validation - Jae-Nam, Lee; Young-Gul, Kim (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
Recently, increasing attention has been paid to building successful partnerships in information systems (IS) outsourcing. This study establishes partnership quality as a key predictor of outsourcing success. The authors propose a theoretical framework for outsourcing partnership based on a social, rather than an economic, perspective. They identify the partnership-related variables from the relevant literature and clarify the concept of partnership quality by distinguishing between its components and its determinants. They then examine the impact of partnership quality on outsourcing success. Hypotheses on partnership quality were tested for 74 outsourcing relationships between 36 service receivers and 54 service providers. Results indicate that partnership quality may serve as a key predictor of outsourcing success. Partnership quality was found to be positively influenced by factors such as participation, communication, information sharing, and top management support, and negatively affected by age of relationship and mutual dependency.
Keywords: information systems outsourcing; outsourcing partnership; outsourcing success; partnership quality

Turning Around Troubled Software Projects: An Exploratory Study of the Deescalation of Commitment to Failing Courses of Action - Keil, Mark; Robey, Daniel (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
Project failure in the information systems field is a costly problem and troubled projects are not uncommon. In many cases, whether a troubled project ultimately succeeds or fails depends on the effectiveness of managerial actions taken to turn around or redirect such projects. Before such actions can be taken, however, management must recognize problems and prepare to take appropriate corrective measures. While prior research has identified many factors that contribute to the escalation of commitment to failing courses of action, there has been little research on the factors contributing to the deescalation of commitment. Through deescalation, troubled projects may be successfully turned around or sensibly abandoned. This study seeks to clarify the factors that contribute to software project deescalation and to establish practical guidelines for identifying and managing troubled projects. Through interviews with forty-two IS auditors, the authors gathered both quantitative and qualitative data about the deescalation of commitment to troubled software projects. The interviews sought judgments about the importance of twelve specific factors derived from a review of the literature on deescalation. Interviews also generated qualitative data about specific actors and actions taken to turn troubled projects around. The results indicate that the escalation and deescalation phases of projects manifest different portraits. While there were no factors that always turned projects around, many actors triggered deescalation, and many specific actions accounted for deescalation. In the majority of cases, deescalation was triggered by actors such as senior managers, internal auditors, or external consultants. Deescalation was achieved both by managing existing resources better and by changing the level of resources committed to the project. We summarize the implications of these findings in a process model of project deescalation.
Keywords: escalation of commitment; information systems auditing; information system development; project management

Meeting Facilitation: Process Versus Content Interventions - Miranda, Shaila M; Bostrom, Robert P (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
This article examines the impacts of two types of meeting facilitation that occur in traditional and GSS environments: process and content facilitation. Based on existing facilitation, leadership, and GSS research, and structuration theory, the authors articulate hypotheses regarding the impact of GSS use and each type of meeting facilitation on meeting processes and of meeting processes on outcomes. Meeting processes examined in this study included relationship development, participation, issue-based conflict, interpersonal conflict, and negative socioemotional conflict. Outcomes explored were the groups' satisfaction with the decision made and with their meeting process, and the quality of the groups' decision products. Empirical investigation provides the following findings: Process facilitation had a positive impact on meeting processes. Content facilitation had a negative impact on meeting processes. The interaction between GSS use and both process and content facilitation had no significant effect on meeting processes. Meeting processes had a strong positive impact on satisfaction, but no impact on product quality. Implications for meeting facilitation are discussed and future research directions proposed.
Keywords: group meeting systems; group support systems; meeting facilitation

Business Process Modeling with Group Support Systems - Dennis, Alan R; Hayes, Glenda S; Daniels Jr, Robert M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
Much process modeling research has focused on the development of new modeling languages, but very little research has examined the process by which model information is collected from subject-matter experts. The goal of this research was to develop and evaluate an alternative process to the traditional sequence of interviews or the increasingly common use of JAD (Joint Application Design) meetings run by professional facilitators/modelers. The authors began by selecting one commonly used modeling technique (IDEF0) and adapting its traditional modeling process to use an enabling technology of a group support system (GSS). They developed a special-purpose GSS tool to support the process and tested it through a series of eight field trials over a sixteen-month period. They then compared the new GSS-based technique with the traditional JAD technique in an additional series of eighteen field studies (nine JAD, nine GSS) over a two-year period. The results indicate that the GSS technique reduced the time required to build models by about 75 percent. Models built using GSS and the traditional JAD approach had similar numbers of syntax errors. Project managers perceived the GSS models to be as good as or better than the traditional JAD models in accurately defining the business process.
Keywords: group support systems; GSS; JAD; process modeling; requirements analysis

The Creative Process: The Effects of Group Memory on Individual Idea Generation - Satzinger, John W; Garfield, Monica J; Nagasundaram, Murli (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
To compete in today's rapidly paced business environment, many companies are increasingly relying on their employees to generate creative solutions to business problems. Specifically, through the use of idea-generation techniques, business owners hope to promote creative idea generation by their employees. Several leading corporations (and, concomitantly, researchers) have become interested in the use of group support systems (GSS) to enhance idea generation. A key component of the GSS-based idea-generation process is group memory, a repository of ideas created by users of GSS. Group memory provides stimuli, in the form of ideas, to the individuals using the software. This study seeks to better understand the manner in which the contents of the group memory influence the type of ideas generated by individuals in the group. The authors report the results of a laboratory experiment that investigated whether the stimuli contained within a GSS group memory (i.e., ideas) systematically influenced the extent of paradigm shift represented in the ideas generated by individuals. A GSS simulator designed for this study was used to allow for the manipulation of the stimuli in the group memory. The results suggest that individuals tend to generate ideas that match the paradigm-relatedness of ideas provided to them as stimulation.
Keywords: brainstorming; creativity; group memory; group support systems; idea generation

Password Security: An Empirical Study - Zviran, Moshe; Haga, William J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
Organizations are more dependent than ever on the reliable operation of their information systems, which have become a key to their success and effectiveness. While the growing dependence on information systems creates an urgent need to collect information and make it accessible, the proliferation of computer technology has also spawned opportunities for ill-intentioned individuals to violate the information systems' integrity and validity. One of the most common control mechanisms for authenticating users of computerized information systems is the use of passwords. However, despite the widespread use of passwords, little attention has been given to the characteristics of their actual use. This paper addresses the gap in evaluating the characteristics of real-life passwords and presents the results of an empirical study on password usage. It investigates the core characteristics of user-generated passwords and associations among those characteristics.
Keywords: access control; information system security; passwords; user authentication

An Integrated Model of Information Systems Adoption in Small Businesses - Thong, James Y L (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
Based on theories from the technological innovation literature, this study develops an integrated model of information systems (IS) adoption in small businesses. The model specifies contextual variables such as decision-maker characteristics, IS characteristics, organizational characteristics, and environmental characteristics as primary determinants of IS adoption in small businesses. A questionnaire survey was conducted in 166 small businesses. Data analysis shows that small businesses with certain CEO characteristics (innovativeness and level of IS knowledge), innovation characteristics (relative advantage, compatibility, and complexity of IS), and organizational characteristics (business size and level of employees' IS knowledge) are more likely to adopt IS. While CEO and innovation characteristics are important determinants of the decision to adopt, they do not affect the extent of IS adoption. The extent of IS adoption is mainly determined by organizational characteristics. Finally, the environmental characteristic of competition has no direct effect on small business adoption of IS.
Keywords: information systems; innovation theories; small business; technological innovation; technology adoption

A Structural Equation Evaluation of CASE Tools Attributes - Post, Gerald V; Kagan, Albert; Keim, Robert T (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
A latent variable approach to the evaluation of CASE tools is used to assess user needs and applications. Responses are consistent with the taxonomy of upper and lower CASE tools. Results indicate the importance of analysis and prototyping features. Some existing tools are rated significantly higher than others in terms of these features. The study also reveals a link between organizational size and the demand for upper and lower CASE tool features. Smaller organizations use CASE tools in the design stage and rely on teamwork and collaboration facilities. Larger firms focus on lower CASE facilities such as prototyping to build completed systems.
Keywords: computer-aided software engineering; CASE; CASE tool ratings; path analysis; structural equation

MOTC: An Interactive Aid for Multidimensional Hypothesis Generation - Balachandran, Krishnamohan; Buzydlowski, Jan; Dworman, Garett; Kimbrough, Steven O; Shafer, Tate; Vachula, William J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
This paper reports on conceptual development in the areas of database mining and knowledge discovery in databases (KDD). The authors' efforts have also led to a prototype implementation, called MOTC, for exploring hypothesis space in large and complex data sets. Their KDD conceptual development rests on two main principles. First, they use the crosstab representation for working with qualitative data. This is by now standard in on-line analytical processing (OLAP) applications, and the authors reaffirm it with additional reasons. Second, and innovatively, they use prediction analysis as a measure of goodness for hypotheses. Prediction analysis is an established statistical technique for analysis of associations among qualitative variables. It generalizes and subsumes a large number of other such measures of association, depending on specific assumptions the user is willing to make. As such, it provides a very useful framework for exploring hypothesis space in a KDD context. The paper illustrates these points with an extensive discussion of MOTC.
Keywords: data mining; data visualization; hypotheses exploration; knowledge discovery in databases; OLAP; prediction analysis

Choosing Data-Mining Methods for Multiple Classification: Representational and Performance Measurement Implications for Decision Support - Spangler, William E; May, Jerrold H; Vargas, Luis G (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
Data-mining techniques are designed for classification problems in which each observation is a member of one and only one category. The authors formulate ten data representations that could be used to extend those methods to problems in which observations may be full members of multiple categories. They propose an audit matrix methodology for evaluating the performance of three popular data-mining techniques--linear discriminant analysis, neural networks, and decision tree induction--using the representations that each technique can accommodate. They then empirically test their approach on an actual surgical data set. Tree induction gives the lowest rate of false positive predictions, and a version of discriminant analysis yields the lowest rate of false negatives for multiple category problems, but neural networks give the best overall results for the largest multiple classification cases. There is substantial room for improvement in overall performance for all techniques.
Keywords: data mining; decision support systems; decision tree induction; neural networks; statistical classification

Dynamics of Modeling in Data Mining: Interpretive Approach to Bankruptcy Prediction - Tae Kyung, Sung; Namsik, Chang; Gunhee, Lee (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
This paper uses a data-mining approach to develop bankruptcy prediction models suitable for normal and crisis economic conditions. It observes the dynamics of model change from normal to crisis conditions and provides interpretation of bankruptcy classifications. The bankruptcy prediction model revealed that the major variables in predicting bankruptcy were "cash flow to total assets" and "productivity of capital" under normal conditions and "cash flow to liabilities," "productivity of capital," and "fixed assets to stockholders equity and long-term liabilities" under crisis conditions. The accuracy rates of final prediction models in normal conditions and in crisis conditions were found to be 83.3 percent and 81.0 percent, respectively. When the normal model was applied in crisis situations, prediction accuracy dropped significantly in the case of bankruptcy classification (from 66.7 percent to 36.7 percent) to the level of a blind guess (35.71 percent). Therefore, the need for a different model in crisis economic conditions is justified.
Keywords: bankruptcy prediction; crisis management; data mining; dynamics of modeling

Redesigning Computer-Supported Work Processes with Dual Information Systems: The Work Process Benchmarking Service - Käkölä, Timo K; Koota, Kalle I (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
The conceptual design of most computer-based information systems reflects a dualism of technology. During the development phase, part of the work-domain-related knowledge is formalized and encoded in the software, making it difficult for users to reflect on and use this knowledge. This design/use dualism contributes to the deterioration of the interpretive flexibility of information systems. The authors propose an information systems architecture called Dual Information Systems (DIS) that helps bridge the design/use dualism by providing organizations with a set of services that enable and reinforce both effective, institutionalized working and the questioning and (re)construction of computer-supported work routines. DIS have a four-layered conceptual structure: (1) people draw on the business layer to work and learn; (2) people use the breakdown layer to handle unexpected breakdowns; (3) self-organizing project teams use the project layer to create innovative work and IS (re)designs; and (4) the knowledge-sharing server stores these redesigns and makes them organizationally available to facilitate working and learning as well as subsequent redesign efforts. In this paper, the authors first outline the theoretical background, conceptual design, and generic services of DIS. Next, they elaborate on the work-process benchmarking service of DIS, which supports project teams in analyzing and redesigning computer-supported work through lateral sharing of knowledge of work processes between business units. Finally, they demonstrate the benchmarking service with the help of the ReDIS prototype.
Keywords: Dual Information Systems; organizational creation of knowledge; organizational interfaces; work-process benchmarking; work-process enactment and redesign; work-process modeling

Development Scenarios for Organizational Memory Information Systems - Wijnhoven, Fons (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
Well-managed organizational memories have been emphasized in the recent management literature as important sources for business success. Organizational memory information systems (OMIS) have been conceptualized as a framework for information technologies to support these organizational memories. OMIS development may include several projects and may take many years. This paper classifies and analyzes OMIS development scenarios to provide guidance and support for OMIS development. This includes the definition of the roles of participants, a work schedule, and a definition of deliverables and deadlines. The mostly evolutionary nature of OMIS development requires that the results of these steps be monitored and adjusted when needed. Furthermore, a contingency framework and eight rules have been hypothesized, partially based on ex-post analysis of three cases (Veronica Broadcasting, Andersen Consulting, and Nationale-Nederlanden General Insurances). The paper provides concepts and a framework that may be an aid to research on refining the rules for analysis and design of OMIS.
Keywords: information system development; information systems project management; measurement; memory codification; OMIS superstructure; OMIS infrastructure; organizational memory information systems; process scenarios; situated systems development

Exploring Differences in Employee Turnover Intentions and Its Determinants Among Telecommuters and Non-Telecommuters - Igbaria, Magid; Guimaraes, Tor (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
As telecommuting programs proliferate, a better understanding of the relationship between telecommuting and career success outcomes is required to provide human resources managers, telecommuters, and information systems managers with information to decide the future of telecommuting arrangements. This paper addresses this need by exploring whether turnover intentions and their determinants differ for telecommuters and non-telecommuters. Four hundred salespeople from one large company in the southeastern United States were asked to participate in the study. The organization entry point was the marketing director. One hundred and four telecommuting employees and one hundred and twenty-one regular employees responded, with a total of 225 usable questionnaires. Telecommuters seemed to face less role conflict and role ambiguity and tended to be happier with their supervisors and more committed to their organizations. They also showed lower satisfaction with peers and with promotion. Based on the results, recommendations are proposed for managing the implementation of telecommuting programs and their impact on the rest of the organization's employee population.
Keywords: job satisfaction; organization commitment; role ambiguity; role conflict; telecommuting; turnover intentions

The Effect of Computer-Mediated Communication on Agreement and Acceptance - Kahai, Surinder S; Cooper, Randolph B (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
This study develops and tests a model of relationships among computer-mediated communication systems (CMCS), group processes, and group outcomes. The group outcomes examined are agreement and acceptance. Agreement is the extent to which members of a problem-solving group hold similar views and solutions about the problem at the end of their task. Acceptance is the extent to which members of a problem-solving group acquiesce to the views and solutions of other members, while holding reservations about those views and solutions. The distinction between agreement and acceptance is important because members in agreement are more likely to support the implementation of their solution than are those who merely accept the solution. Based on a laboratory experiment, the authors find that socioemotional communication (both positive--showing friendliness and supportiveness--and negative---showing hostility and rejection) as well as task-oriented communication play important mediating roles between CMCS use and acceptance and agreement. The findings suggest ways to promote agreement through management intervention and CMCS design. In addition, their findings suggest some intriguing avenues for further research, such as the lack of symmetry between the effects of positive and negative socioemotional communication.
Keywords: acceptance; agreement; computer-mediated communication systems; electronic meeting systems technology adoption; group decision support systems; group performance; group processes; negotiation tasks

Expert, Linear Models, and Nonlinear Models of Expert Decision Making in Bankruptcy Prediction: A Lens Model Analysis - Choong Nyoung, Kim; McLeod Jr, Raymond (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
Analysis of human judgment and decision making provides useful methodologies for examining the human decision process and substantive results. One such methodology is a lens model analysis. The authors used such a model to study how well a model of expert decisions can capture a valid strategy in the decision process. The study also addresses whether a model of an expert can be more accurate than the expert. The predictive accuracy (predictive validity) of two linear (statistical) models and two nonlinear models of human experts is compared. The results indicate that nonlinear models can capture factors (valid nonlinear strategy) that contribute to the experts' predictive accuracy. However, linear models cannot capture the valid nonlinear strategy as well as nonlinear models. One linear model and two nonlinear models performed as well as the overall average of a group of experts. However, all of the models were outperformed by the most accurate expert. By combining validity of decision strategy with characteristics of modeling algorithms, it is possible to explain why certain algorithms perform better than others.
Keywords: decision strategy; human expert; inductive learning; lens model; linear model; nonlinear model; predictive validity

A Temporal Model of Institutional Interventions for Information Technology Adoption in Less-Developed Countries - Montealegre, Ramiro (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
This empirical study of Internet adoption in four Latin American countries delineates a gradual but progressive course of institutional actions and suggests a temporal ordering of the actions--including knowledge building, subsidy, knowledge deployment, innovation directive, and standard setting. The temporal model reveals how each country sustained the momentum of its evolving strategy, grew in competence to forge technological solutions, and gained access to the Internet. The four countries' original goals changed, but through experience they perceived new opportunities and established evolving Internet strategies that form the bases of new technological services provided at the national level.
Keywords: adoption of information technology; global information technology infrastructure; information technology in less-developed countries; network development and implementation

Rosenbluth International: Strategic Transformation of a Successful Enterprise - Clemons, Eric K; Hann, Il-Horn (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
Successful companies find it exceedingly difficult to change their business strategy radically in response to impending changes in their competitive environment. Here, the authors analyze how Rosenbluth International, one of the largest travel agencies, was able to accomplish that. Threatened with disintemediation during the period of drastic restructuring of travel brokerage, the company strategically revised its value proposition. It has divested itself of its leisure travel segment and offered a range of its services on a fee basis to its customers, rather than rely on commissions by the suppliers of travel services, as it had done previously. This strategic change was enabled by information systems, several of them highly innovative, which Rosenbluth had used strategically in its prior business initiatives. The paper analyzes the management of strategic transition at Rosenbluth International in the light of general theory of organizational resistance to change.
Keywords: competitive information systems; organizational change; strategic transformation; travel industry

Next-Generation Trading in Futures Markets: A Comparison of Open Outcry and Order Matching Systems - Weber, Bruce W (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
The introduction of new screen-based systems for trading securities and futures contracts has led to the emergence of a "market for markets," and exchanges, broker-dealer firms, and market data vendors are competing to offer trade execution services that will attract customers and trading volumes. This competition is favored in the United States by regulatory bodies such as the SEC and the CFTC, which have taken steps such as encouraging the listing of equity options on multiple exchanges and approving the applications of screen-based systems for designation as contract markets. This paper examines the design of one screen-based futures market, the Cantor Financial Futures Exchange (CX), and describes its capabilities relative to the rival, floor-based market in Chicago. In comparison to traditional open-outcry mechanisms, the CX order-matching system maintains strict first in--first out time priority among submitted orders. Using a simple simulation model, we see that order matching leads to faster completion of desired trades and about a one-third reduction in transactions costs.
Keywords: electronic futures trading; screen-based trading; trading automation

Information Systems for Optimal Transaction Implementation - Rickard, John T; Torre, Nicolo G (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
In a securities market, the initiator of a large transaction can expect the realized price of his or her trade to be inferior to the current market price immediately prior to his appearance in the market. This "transaction implementation cost" phenomenon is a major concern of institutional money managers, both in portfolio selection and in trade implementation strategy. A considerable amount of current research in finance theory deals with modeling and prediction of these costs for equities trading, and commercial products and services recently have become available for probabilistically estimating real-time transaction implementation costs versus transaction size on a stock-specific basis. Earlier papers described the concept of satisfaction- or preference-based trading, with optimization of trade matching on the basis of mutual preference. A market structure based on this design began trading listed equities on the Pacific Exchange on January 29, 1999 under the trade name OptiMark Registered Trademark. The Nasdaq market plans to begin trading using the OptiMark system later in 1999, followed by the Osaka Securities Exchange and the Toronto Stock Exchange in 2000. A prima-facie benefit of this approach is the ability to specify trading strategies that explicitly account for transaction implementation cost estimates as a function of the trade size. In this paper, the authors present the underlying theoretical framework that unites the concepts of preference-based trading and probabilistic transaction cost estimation. In particular, they develop an analytical generalization of the current market structure constructs of market orders and limit orders. They describe a feasible optimization problem whose solution yields optimal preference profiles, given current market conditions (as reflected by the probability distribution of transaction implementation cost) and a trader-specified coefficient of urgency.
Keywords: electronic trading; fuzzy sets; preference-based trading; securities markets

Adoption and Utilization of Commercial Software Packages: Exploring Utilization Equilibria, Transitions, Triggers, and Tracks - Lassila, Kathy S; Brancheau, James C (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
Researchers and managers are beginning to realize that the full advantages of information technologies are not likely to be realized unless both the information technology and the organizational context are adapted during implementation. This highlights the importance of understanding and managing the relationship between information technology and organizational change. This study takes a new look at an old concept: information system utilization. A theoretical framework grounded in the punctuated equilibrium model contends that the mutual adaptation of commercial software packages and organizational processes follows a discontinuous change pattern where stable periods of utilization are occasionally disturbed by internal and external change triggers. Qualitative data gathered from interviews with software vendor personnel and a representative sample of users provide preliminary support for the existence of utilization equilibrium states. The evidence suggests that, when significant changes occur in the appropriation of technology, the users, or the organization context, the existing equilibrium state is disturbed. Following a temporary transition state characterized by redefinition of the technology and/or its context, the changes are incorporated into altered work processes, and a new equilibrium state develops. Various factors associated with the creation, maintenance, and disruption of equilibrium states are identified. Managers and users can enhance and prolong the useful life of software packages by paying careful attention to implementation efforts that heavily influence initial utilization equilibrium, identifying periods of equilibrium and transition, and managing the internal and external change triggers that influence transitions between equilibrium states.
Keywords: information system implementation; information system utilization; innovation reinvention; punctuated equilibrium model; structuration model; technology assimilation

Examining the Technology Acceptance Model Using Physician Acceptance of Telemedicine Technology - Hu, Paul J; Chau, Patrick Y K; Liu Sheng, Olivia R; Kar Yan, Tam (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
The rapid growth of investment in information technology (IT) by organizations worldwide has made user acceptance an increasingly critical technology implementation and management issue. While such acceptance has received fairly extensive attention from previous research, additional efforts are needed to examine or validate existing research results, particularly those involving different technologies, user populations, and/or organizational contexts. In response, this paper reports a research work that examined the applicability of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) in explaining physicians' decisions to accept telemedicine technology in the health-care context. The technology, the user group, and the organizational context are all new to IT acceptance/adoption research. The study also addressed a pragmatic technology management need resulting from millions of dollars invested by healthcare organizations in developing and implementing telemedicine programs in recent years. The model's overall fit, explanatory power, and the individual causal links that it postulates were evaluated by examining the acceptance of telemedicine technology among physicians practicing at public tertiary hospitals in Hong Kong. The authors' results suggested that TAM was able to provide a reasonable depiction of physicians' intention to use telemedicine technology. Perceived usefulness was found to be a significant determinant of attitude and intention but perceived ease of use was not. The relatively low R-square of the model suggests both the limitations of the parsimonious model and the need for incorporating additional factors or integrating with other IT acceptance models in order to improve its specificity and explanatory utility in a health-care context. Based on the study findings, implications for user technology acceptance research and telemedicine management are discussed.
Keywords: information technology acceptance; information technology management in health care; technology acceptance model; telemedicine

Toward a Contingency Model for Selecting an Information System Prototyping Strategy - Hardgrave, Bill C; Wilson, Rick L; Eastman, Ken (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
Many proposed contingencies regarding the conditions when the use of prototyping will lead to successful system development appear in the literature. Using an industry survey, this exploratory study empirically investigates the effect of certain contingencies on system success. Overall, results indicate that five variables, when combined with prototyping, affect system success (as indicated by user satisfaction): innovativeness of the project, impact of the system on the organization, user participation, number of users, and developer experience with prototyping. These results provide some insight into the proper uses of prototyping to improve system success. The results also indicate that several of the current contingencies, if followed, do not ensure high levels of system success.
Keywords: contingency theory; information system prototyping; systems development; system success

Alignment Is Not Enough: Integrating Business and Information Technology Management with the Balanced Business Scorecard - van der Zee, J T M; de Jong, Berend (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
The continuously growing importance of information technology (IT) requires organizations to integrate IT decisions with their common planning and decision-making processes at all organizational levels. Trying to align distinct and separate business with IT management cycles is just not enough. Multilevel, integrated business and IT management are aimed at fully integrating the capabilities of IT with business strategies and management's expectations, and vice versa. Although the need to integrate business and IT strategy has long been advocated, until now a practical framework did not exist. The authors seek to contribute to the discipline of IT value management. Their framework includes the planning of and setting goals for IT, and the evaluation of results, integrated with the business context. First approaches to IT planning and evaluation, and their limitations, are discussed. They then elaborate on the concepts of the Balanced Business Scorecard in two case studies. By investigating the benefits and limitations of the framework, and comparing them with other common frameworks, they conclude that the Balanced Business Scorecard can be a valuable contributor to implementation of an integrated business and IT planning and evaluation process.
Keywords: Balanced Business Scorecard; information technology planning and control; information technology strategy; strategic alignment

Applying Code Inspection to Spreadsheet Testing - Panko, Raymond R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
In programming, reliability requires an extensive testing phase. Spreadsheet development, which has about the error rate as program development, also needs to be followed by an extensive testing phase if spreadsheets are to be reliable. In this study, sixty undergraduate MIS students code-inspected a spreadsheet seeded with eight errors. They first inspected the spreadsheet working alone. They then met in twenty groups of three to reinspect the spreadsheet together. Effort was made to prevent hasty inspection. Individual code inspection, consistent with past studies of both spreadsheet and program code inspection, caught only 63 percent of the errors. Group inspection raised this to 83 percent. However, the group phase never found new errors; it merely pooled the errors found during the individual phase by the three members. One group even "lost" an error found during the individual phase. This raises the question of whether a group code inspection phase is really necessary. Other findings were that subjects were overconfident when inspecting alone, that certain types of errors are especially difficult to detect, and that the benefits of the group phase is greatest for these difficult-to-detect types of errors.
Keywords: code inspection; error detection; spreadsheet errors; spreadsheet testing

Gaining Competitive Advantage for Trading in Emerging Capital Markets with Neural Networks - Walczak, Steven (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
Emerging capital markets may not be as efficient as the more established equity markets. Because of the possible inefficiency in these markets, various indicators that are external to the emerging capital market may provide a significant trading advantage. A preliminary analysis suggests that the Singapore market appears to be efficient. Neural network models are used to evaluate the claim that emerging equity markets, specifically the Singapore exchange, are affected by external signals and attempt to exploit any trading advantage imparted by these signals. The neural network technique as it is applied to trading on market indices in the "emerging" Singapore market is compared with the more established Dow Jones market index. Results indicate that external market signals can significantly improve forecasting on the Singapore DBSS0 index but have little or no effect on forecasts for the more established Dow Jones Industrial Average index. The research demonstrates the efficacy of using neural network methods to capitalize on discovered market inefficiencies. Utilizing external market signals, a neural network forecasting model achieved a 63 percent trading prediction accuracy.
Keywords: emerging markets; trading; neural networks; Pacific Rim

Evidential Reasoning for WebTrust Assurance Services - Srivastava, Rajendra P; Mock, Theodore J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
We study two aspects of assurance services in electronic commerce. The first deals with the type(s) of evidential networks that will allow a professional accountant to provide assurance. Here, we develop an evidential network model for "WebTrust Assurance," a service being provided by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) and the Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants (CICA). Our model augments the AICPA/CICA approach and provides goals, subgoals and evidence relevant to the overall assurance to be provided. The aggregation of evidence and the resolution of uncertainties follow the belief-function approach. Next we develop a decision-theoretic model for the assurance-planning problem. Our approach is based on estimating the expected value of providing various levels of assurance and is illustrated with several different scenarios that may be faced in practice. We also consider the role of ambiguity in decision situations such as planning WebTrust engagements and calculate bounds in expected value based on whether auditors are conservative or not in their approach to risk.
Keywords: assurance services; decision theory; electronic commerce; risk management; WebTrust

Testing the Interactivity Model: Communication Processes, Partner Assessments, and the Quality of Collaborative Work - Burgoon, Judee K; Bonito, Joseph A; Bengtsson, Bjorn; Ramjrez, Jr Artemio; Dunbar, Norah E; Miczo, Nathan (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
A major consideration in designing and adopting new communication technologies is their impact on communication processes and outcomes. One way to understand this impact is according to the principle of interpersonal interactivity. Findings from two investigations are reported here that address how properties of task-related communication conducted with differing interfaces relate to perceptions of interaction partners and the outcomes of their collaborative work. Study 1 manipulated the interface affordances of mediation, contingency, and modality richness. Study 2 examined the affordance of mediation. Results show that interfaces that promote higher mutuality and involvement lead to more favorable perceptions of partners' credibility and attraction, and those perceptions are systematically related to higher-quality decisions and more influence. Discussion focuses on the relation between user perceptions, design features, and task outcomes in human-computer interaction and computer-mediated communication.
Keywords: collaborative work; communication interfaces; computer-mediated communication (CMC); decision making; human-computer interaction; interactivity

Verifying the Proximity and Size Hypothesis for Self-Organizing Maps - Chienting, Lin; Hsinchun, Chen; Nunamaker Jr, Jay F (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
The Kohonen Self-Organizing Map (SOM) is an unsupervised learning technique for summarizing high-dimensional data so that similar inputs are, in general, mapped close to one another. When applied to textual data, SOM has been shown to be able to group together related concepts in a data collection and to present major topics within the collection with larger regions. This article presents research in which the authors sought to validate these properties of SOM, called the Proximity and Size Hypotheses, through a user evaluation study. Building upon their previous research in automatic concept generation and classification, they demonstrated that the Kohonen SOM was able to perform concept clustering effectively, based on its concept precision and recall 7 scores as judged by human experts. They also demonstrated a positive relationship between the size of an SOM region and the number of documents contained in the region. They believe this research has established the Kohonen SOM algorithm as an intuitively appealing and promising neural-network-based textual classification technique for addressing part of the longstanding "information overload" problem.
Keywords: document clustering techniques; experimental research; group support systems; self-organizing maps; unsupervised learning algorithms

Linguini: Language Identification for Multilingual Documents - Prager, John M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
Given the vast and still growing availability of electronic documents from around the world, it is becoming increasingly important for managers of the information systems on which these documents are stored to sort or tag these documents so that their end users can most readily access those documents that are of most interest and use to them, which in our context means in a language they can understand. Linguini is a vectorspace-based categorizer tailored for high-precision language identification. This paper determines the functional dependencies of Linguini's performance and demonstrates that it can identify the language of documents as short as 5 to 10 percent of the size of average Web documents with 100 percent accuracy. It also describes how to determine if a document is in two or more languages, without incurring any appreciable extra computational overhead. This approach can be applied equally to subject-categorization systems to distinguish between cases where, when the system recommends two or more categories, the document belongs strongly to all or really to none.
Keywords: categorization; information retrieval; language identification; vector-space models

Data Is More Than Knowledge: Implications of the Reversed Knowledge Hierarchy for Knowledge Management and Organizational Memory - Tuomi, Ilkka (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
The knowledge management literature often points out the importance of distinguishing among data, information, and knowledge. The generally accepted view sees data as simple facts that become information as data are combined into meaningful structures, which subsequently become knowledge as meaningful information is put into a context and when it can be used to make predictions. According to this view, data are a prerequisite for information, and information is a prerequisite for knowledge. This paper explores the conceptual hierarchy of data, information, and knowledge, showing that data emerge only after we have information, and that information emerges only after we already have knowledge. The reversed hierarchy of knowledge is shown to lead to a different approach in developing information systems that support knowledge management and organizational memory. It is also argued that this difference may have major implications for organizational flexibility and renewal.
Keywords: information; knowledge; knowledge management

Total Quality Management in Information Systems Development: Key Constructs and Relationships - Ravichandran, T; Rai, Arun (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
The availability of high-quality software is critical for the effective use of information technology in organizations. Research in software quality has focused largely on the technical aspects of quality improvement, while limited attention has been paid to the organizational and sociobehavioral aspects of quality management. This study represents one effort at addressing this void in the information systems literature. The quality and systems development literatures are synthesized to develop eleven quality management constructs and two quality performance constructs. Scales for these constructs are empirically validated using data collected from a national survey of IS organizations. A LISREL framework is used to test the reliability and validity of the thirteen constructs. The results provide support for the reliability and validity of the constructs. A cluster analysis of the data was conducted to examine patterns of association between quality management practices and quality performance. The results suggest that higher levels of institutionalization of all quality management practices are associated with higher levels of quality performance. The results also suggest that key factors that differentiated high- and low-quality performing IS units include senior management leadership, mechanisms to promote learning and the management infrastructure of the IS unit. Future research efforts directed at causally interrelating the quality management practices should lead to the development of a theory of quality management in systems development.
Keywords: information system managerial roles; software quality; systems development; total quality management theory

Information Overload: Addressing the Productivity Paradox in Face-to-Face Electronic Meetings - Grisé, Mary-Liz; Gallupe, R Brent (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
The Electronic Brainstorming System (EBS) is a group support system (GSS) tool considered particularly productive in supporting idea generation. Unfortunately, as computer-supported groups are confronted with larger numbers of ideas and supporting comments to organize and evaluate, they may experience information overload. This study explores the problem of information overload within the context of an idea-organization task in a face-to-face electronic meeting. Integrative Complexity Theory provides the primary theoretical foundation, and an Information Overload Model for GSS is introduced. Results from a laboratory experiment provide support for the idea that effective GSS tools can be designed based on a theoretical understanding of information processing, in particular, how information is processed under conditions of high information load. Use of a GSS tool designed to regulate the flow of information, called an Idea Regulator, led subjects to organize ideas with higher levels of complexity, but they also reported higher levels of mental workload. This research suggests that particular attention to the problem of information overload, and research focused on finding theory-based solutions, can lead to more effective meetings.
Keywords: electronic brainstorming; group support systems; information overload; Integrative Complexity Theory

Exploring Mediation Between Environmental and Structural Attributes: The Penetration of Communication Technologies in Manufacturing Organizations - Lee, Choong C; Grover, Varun (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
The relationship between organizational structures and information technology (IT) has been the subject of much discussion in IS research. While studies have not yielded conclusive results, the importance of examining the relationship between structure and technology is increasing in an environment where organizations are using contemporary IT to redesign themselves in order to compete more effectively. This paper presents a study that examines the relationship between the use of an important class of IT, communications technologies, and organizational structural attributes within a broad contingency context. Hypotheses are proposed, based on theory from the information-processing paradigm examining the mediating role of communications technologies (CT) in the relationship between environmental characteristics and organizational structural characteristics. Data from 153 manufacturing firms are collected and analyzed. The results show that CT seems to play a direct role in reinforcing structures that emerge from environmental dictates. The expanded set of variables considered in this study and the results provide potentially strong implications for future work in this important area.
Keywords: communication technologies; environmental characteristics; mediation; organizational structure; telecommunications

Supervisor Support and Career Anchor Impact on the Career Satisfaction of the Entry-Level Information Systems Professional - Jiang, James J; Klein, Gary (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1999)
Keeping satisfied information systems (IS) professionals at the entry level has become a difficult task for IS managers. Financial incentives have led to escalating costs without widespread improvement of the situation. To capitalize on nonfinancial rewards, organizations must understand the relationships between employees' internal desires, the environment fostered by the organization, and career satisfaction. This paper is a report on a study of 101 entry-level IS professionals. The data analysis indicates that IS professionals find more satisfaction with their career when supervisor support is prominent and an adequate range of opportunities that satisfy career desires exist within the organization.
Keywords: career anchors; career satisfaction; MIS entry-level personnel; supervisor support

Considering Social Subsystem Costs and Benefits in Information Technology Investment Decisions: A View from the Field on Anticipated Payoffs - Ryan, Sherry D; Harrison, David A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Information technology (IT) investment decisions have traditionally focused on financial or technological issues. Responding to what appears to be a lack of payoff in IT investments, researchers as well as practitioners recently have suggested that traditional valuation analyses are incomplete and have called for additional work to identify "hidden" or seldom-considered costs and benefits. The present paper attempts to improve understanding of a chief source of these hidden costs and benefits: those changes in the social subsystem brought about by a new IT.
Keywords: information technology investment; decision making processes; sociotechnical systems

Information Technology Payoff in the Health-Care Industry: A Longitudinal Study - Devaraj, Sarv; Kohli, Rajiv (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
With the enormous investments in Information Technology (IT), the question of payoffs from IT has become increasingly important. Organizations continue to question the benefits from IT investments especially in conjunction with corporate initiatives such as business process reengineering (BPR). Furthermore, the impact of technology on nonfinancial outcomes such as customer satisfaction and quality is gaining interest.
Keywords: business process reengineering; health-care information systems; information technology payoff; information technology productivity

A Framework for Assessing the Relationship Between Information Technology Investments and Firm Performance - Sircar, Sumit; Turnbow, Joe L; Bordoloi, Bijoy (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
There have been several attempts in the past to assess the impact of information technology on firm performance that have yielded conflicting results. Researchers have been unable to conclude that IT spending by an organization results in increases in key performance indicators. Two major recent studies have attempted to address the issue by putting greater emphasis on the theoretical underpinnings of the solution to the problem, although they chose different theoretical frameworks. The present study extends that work to yield a framework that shows the relationship between firm performance and both IT and corporate investments. The data used to validate the framework exceeds that used in previous analyses in both quality and quantity, thereby permitting appropriate statistical analyses. A large database consisting of over 2,000 observations of 624 firms was constructed, using data provided by the International Data Corporation, Standard & Poor's Compustat, and Moody's. This allowed the authors to pose the following research questions: (a) Can the relationship between sets of investment measures and firm performance be demonstrated (as opposed to individual measures)? (b) How are IT investments related to a firm's market value, market share, sales, and assets? and (c) Is there a difference in the effect of computer capital and noncomputer capital?
Keywords: information technology payoff; information technology investment; organizational performance

Information Technology Value Through Different Normative Lenses - Lee, Byungtae; Menon, Nirup M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
The influence of information technology (IT) investments on organizational performance is revisited. Bounded rationality, organizational controls, and political forces may constrain optimal selection of inputs and appropriate substitution between inputs. For example, firms may not be able to attain an optimal level of IT by substituting IT for labor (for reasons such as pressure from the labor union). Besides estimating a link between IT investments and firm output, this paper presents a study of the link between IT investment levels and the efficiency of processes.
Keywords: allocative efficiency; information technology performance; process efficiency; technical efficiency

Discovering Potential and Realizing Value from Information Technology Investments - Davern, Michael J; Kauffman, Robert J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Information technology (IT) value has been measured at various levels of analysis, yet few authors would contend that the search for value has reached a point where practitioners and theoreticians are satisfied with its outcomes. The authors present a new perspective that emphasizes the importance of understanding where potential value lies and how best to relate it contextually to the measurement of the firm's realized value across multiple levels of analysis. They develop the idea that complementary assets (especially business process design and human capital) influence the firm's realization of value, using concepts such as locus of value and value conversion contingencies. Expanding beyond earlier process models of IT value, which begin with IT expenditure, their analysis of IT value emphasizes the consideration of potential value for an IT investment both in ex ante project selection, and ex post investment evaluation. They illustrate and validate the application of our framework using IT investments in a variety of business domains.
Keywords: business-process design; business value of information technology; conversion contingencies; decision support systems; IT value; potential value; realized value

Executives' Perceptions of the Business Value of Information Technology: A Process-Oriented Approach - Tallon, Paul P; Kraemer, Kenneth L; Gurbaxani, Vijay (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Despite significant progress in evaluating the productivity payoffs from information technology (IT), the inability of traditional firm-level economic analysis to account fully for the intangible impacts of IT has led to calls for a more inclusive and comprehensive approach to measuring IT business value. In response to this call, the authors develop a process-oriented model to assess the impacts of IT on critical business activities within the value chain. Their model incorporates corporate goals for IT and management practices as key determinants of realized IT payoffs. Using survey data from 304 business executives worldwide, they found that corporate goals for IT can be classified into one of four types: unfocused, operations focus, market focus, and dual focus. Their analysis confirms that these goals are useful indicators of payoffs from IT in that executives in firms with more focused goals for IT perceive greater payoffs from IT across the value chain. In addition, the authors found that management practices such as strategic alignment and IT investment evaluation contribute to higher perceived levels of IT business value.
Keywords: business value; impact of information technology; information technology strategy; value chain

Relating Benefits from Using IS to an Organization's Operating Characteristics: Interpreting Results from Two Countries - Ragowsky, Arik; Stern, Myles; Adams, Dennis A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
To obtain the greatest benefit from its information system, an organization must determine which applications will provide the most benefit to organizational performance. This study reviews data collected from 310 manufacturing firms in Israel and 197 such firms in the U.S. For each firm, data were obtained about the benefits derived from using information systems, as perceived by a senior manager, and the organization's operating characteristics. Data were pooled across both countries. No meaningful relationship was found between the benefit a firm derives from its overall information systems application portfolio and its organizational operating characteristics. However, for two individual applications, the benefit derived is linked significantly to the organization's operating characteristics. Thus the model relating benefits from information systems to the organization's operating environment, first demonstrated by data collected in Israel, is confirmed by the data collected in the U.S. The model applies across both countries, even though there may be differences between the two countries, for example, in culture, size of businesses, and relationship with customers and suppliers.
Keywords: information economics; information technology value; international information systems; manufacturing systems; organizational operating characteristics

Strategic Payoff from EDI as a Function of EDI Embeddedness - Chatfield, Akemi Takeoka; Yetton, Philip (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
A key issue facing information technology (IT) researchers and practitioners has been the difficulty in realizing strategic payoff from IT investment. This study, drawn on sociological theories of embeddedness, addresses this key issue, with particular attention to the perspective of EDI network initiator. Cross-case analysis is conducted comparing three initiators of sophisticated EDI networks, who realized different levels of strategic payoffs. Results reveal that the achievement of strategic payoffs is a function of EDI embeddedness, which is defined as how central or peripheral a specific EDI network is to managing interfirm interdependence. In a model of EDI initiator strategic payoff, the authors argue that EDI embeddedness, which is influenced by existing interfirm relationship, moderates the impact of adopter EDI use on initiator strategic payoff derived from the EDI investment. Specifically, while high embeddedness motivates adopter strategic use, low embeddedness deters such use. The model is validated against three reported cases in the literature.
Keywords: electronic data interchange; embeddedness; interfirm cooperation; interfirm interdependence; IT investment; strategic payoff; time-based competition

IT Value: The Great Divide Between Qualitative and Quantitative and Individual and Organizational Measures - Chan, Yolande E (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
A comprehensive review was conducted of information technology (IT) value articles in the "Communications of the ACM," "Information Systems Research," "Journal of Management Information Systems," and "MIS Quarterly" from 1993 to 1998. IT-value measures published during this period were documented, classified, analyzed, and reported. The review of these journal articles revealed a schism between the use of organization-level measures and other measures. "Communications of the ACM" and "Information Systems Research" also provided strong evidence of a schism between the use of quantitative and qualitative measures in IT-value research. The "Journal of Management Information Systems" and "MIS Quarterly" data provided more limited evidence of this schism as well. These schisms have become more pronounced over time. This may be due partly to an increasing reliance on secondary data set analyses that use only quantitative measures and organization-level analyses. The current research confirmed what many researchers suspect--schisms exist, and may be deepening, in IT-value research.
Keywords: information technology productivity; information technology investment value

Extracting Consumers' Private Information for Implementing Incentive-Compatible Internet Traffic Pricing - Gupta, Alok; Jukic, Boris; Stahl, Dale O; Whinston, Andrew B (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Internet traffic pricing is necessary for the vitality of electronic commerce because uncontrolled congestion creates a detrimental effect on quality of the Internet services. Pricing approaches based on negative externality have potential to address the issue of congestion. However, most externality-based pricing approaches require the knowledge of consumers' private demand characteristics, and this requirement is often pointed out as the single most important shortcoming of these mechanisms. The fact that the Internet is a "public good" presents challenging information extraction problems for network managers in implementing any pricing mechanism. Ideally, we seek an incentive-compatible mechanism--a means of extracting the required information that provides no incentives for users to alter their behavior in an attempt to manipulate the information extraction and price setting processes. The authors present a solution based on a new nonparametric statistical technique that was developed for this purpose. While the results in this paper are presented in the context of our prior research on pricing, the approach presented here applies to information extraction and implementation in other resource pricing approaches.
Keywords: Internet Pricing; incentive compatibility; demand estimation; economic mechanism design; simulation

Trading Volumes with and Without Private Information: A Study Using Computerized Market Experiments - Tung, Y Alex; Marsden, James R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Insider trading and asymmetric information have been the subject of a significant body of research since the 1960s. Yet little work has been directed at analyzing the impact of different market regulations. Along with difficulties in correctly identifying trades made on inside information, empirical field study methods have not been capable of analyzing the impact of different market regulations. The authors develop a controllable networked market trading environment that incorporates accurate identification of information possessed by each trader studied and that provides the flexibility necessary to analyze market impacts of different regulatory schemes to limit trading on inside information. The authors illustrate their methods through a series of controlled induced-value laboratory experiments using human subjects. Subject rewards are performance-based, with cash incentives tied to the outcomes of each market transaction. Experimental results indicate that markets with inside, privately informed traders led to greater trading volumes than markets with traders having access to private information only. In addition to reporting the results of initial sets of the experiments, the authors use these outcomes to frame future research issues involving the use of IT systems in surveillance and links between trading patterns and insider activity.
Keywords: insider trading; asymmetric information; security market; market regulations; laboratory experiments

Private Markets for Public Goods: Pricing Strategies of Online Database Vendors - West Jr, Lawrence A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
The online database industry has annual sales of US$6.5 billion for a product that can be easily appropriated, duplicated, reused, and redistributed. This paper examines how the industry developed dynamic pricing and delivery strategies as a response to technological and market changes, and shows how each strategy specifically compensated for the public good properties of information. Readers will see that specific pricing strategies reduce the incentive to improperly reuse downloaded information. Thus, these strategies can lead to the sustainability and growth of the online database industry. These findings are then extended to the broader context of information delivery via the Internet.
Keywords: information pricing; information economics; online databases; public goods; Internet information markets

Software Editions: An Application of Segmentation Theory to the Packaged Software Market - Raghunathan, Srinivasan (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Introducing multiple editions of the same software is a relatively recent innovation in the software market. The editions serve to differentiate among different user segments. Introduction of similar low- and high-end products in other markets has been analyzed using segmentation theory. However, the software market is fundamentally different from other product markets in two respects: (1) Software is characterized by negligible marginal production cost, and (2) the option of offering upgrades also exists. The authors analyze the problem of software introduction using segmentation theory. Their analysis shows that if cannibalization is low, the vendor should introduce the full software as one edition. This result differs from that obtained in prior research, which showed that the seller should introduce two distinct products in such cases. When cannibalization is high, introducing multiple editions simultaneously is optimal under a variety of conditions. The strategy of introducing a high-end edition in the first period followed by the low-end edition in the second period is optimal only when the consumers are extremely impatient and the software is large. A significant result of the authors' analysis is that offering upgrades is clearly superior to other strategies only in a very restricted range of parameters. The analysis also suggests that the vendor's profit is higher when it announces the future strategy. Theoretical results are supported by evidence from the software market.
Keywords: information goods; software introduction; economics of software; software pricing; software marketing; market segmentation; software editions

Software Preannouncements and Their Impact on Customers' Perceptions and Vendor Reputation - Hoxmeier, John A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Software preannouncements are often called "vaporware" (systems or features announced long before a ship date). The challenge confronting software vendors and consumers is understanding the balance between the need to inform the market and the negative consequences of unfulfilled promises. Based on signaling theory from marketing science and research, this study looks at the perceived importance of software preannouncement factors on customers, of unfulfilled promises and unreliable software on a company's reputation, and whether vendor dependence changes these perceptions. Database administrators were surveyed on the perceptions of their database software vendor. Fulfilling commitments to software functionality was more strongly correlated with vendor reputation than on-time delivery of the software. Customer dependence on the vendor was not correlated with perceptions of vendor reputation and credibility. Thus, unlike other industries, it seems that vendors can use software delivery time preannouncements for competitive purposes with minimal concern for the impact on customers, provided the software ultimately delivers the features and functionality promised and is largely free of errors.
Keywords: software preannouncements; vaporware; signaling; corporate reputation

Distributing Multimedia Content to Balance Quality Service and Cost - Purao, Sandeep; Han, Tae-Dong (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
An increasing number of computer applications today use multimedia content such as images, sound, and video over distributed networks of computers. Often, a dispersed set of users, with varying demands, requires ongoing access to this content. Effective placement of the multimedia content at different locations/processors thus becomes essential to ensure acceptable quality of service at a reasonable cost. Achieving this requires the consideration of a set of issues quite different from that required for traditional data distribution. These include (a) scale, both in terms of individual objects and in aggregate, (b) importance of form or appearance, making resolution levels an important, controllable variable, and (c) the temporal dimension, placing stringent demands on response time. These concerns make distribution of multimedia content more than a straightforward extension of traditional distribution approaches. The authors develop a model and a supporting approach to facilitate effective distribution of multimedia content, focusing on multimedia applications in corporate intranets. The model consists of multiple criteria to reflect different aspects of quality of service and cost which they formulate by leveraging variance in resolution levels to capture trade-offs among these criteria. Since the multiple-criteria allocation model is NP-complete, they propose a decision support approach that generates locally efficient solutions using designer-specified targets and evaluates them using fuzzy-set-based heuristics. The complete model and the approach have been implemented in a prototype to ensure feasibility. The authors demonstrate use of the prototype for a medical imaging application that illustrates applicability and usefulness of our proposals.
Keywords: multimedia content; object distribution; multiple criteria decision making; fuzzy heuristics

Measuring the Flexibility of Information Technology Infrastructure: Exploratory Analysis of a Construct - Byrd, Terry Anthony; Turner, Douglas E (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Researchers and practitioners alike have taken note of the potential value of an organization's IT infrastructure. IT infrastructure expenditures account for over 58 percent of an organization's IT budget and the percentage is growing at 11 percent a year. Some even have called IT infrastructure the new competitive weapon and see it as being crucial in developing a sustained competitive advantage. Unique characteristics of an IT infrastructure determine the value of that infrastructure to an organization. One characteristic, IT infrastructure flexibility, has captured the attention of researchers and practitioners. In fact, in most recent surveys featuring issues of most importance to IT executives, the development of a flexible and responsive IT infrastructure and related topics are always at or near the top of the responses. Although the importance of IT infrastructure flexibility has been established, the development of a valid, reliable instrument to measure this construct has not been reported in the literature. The purpose of this paper is to better define the IT infrastructure flexibility construct and to develop a valid, reliable measurement instrument for this construct. In addition to the definition and operationalization of the IT infrastructure flexibility construct, this study explores the instrument's predictive validity with possible antecedent and consequent variables.
Keywords: information technology infrastructure; information architecture; flexibility of information systems; information technology personnel

Integration in Electronic Exchange Environments - Truman, Gregory E (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Provided the increasing prevalence of electronic exchange environments--including propriety electronic data interchange (EDI) and some Internet-based EDI (e-commerce) systems--the authors argue that management's decision-making focus vis-a-vis electronic data interchange (EDI) assumes a tactical disposition rather than a strategic one. They offer that the formulation and execution of tactics may be organized around the general question of how to effectively integrate EDI with internal systems, since this appears to be crucial for obtaining the expected performance advantages. They distinguish between two integration concepts, including the integration between the EDI systems and internal systems (interface integration), and the integration among the internal systems (internal integration). Based on theory and literature, they propose that interface integration is favorably related to performance outcomes, and that interface integration and internal integration are positively related. Using data from the Group Insurance industry, they obtain supportive findings. They conclude that tactical EDI planning should centrally focus on interface integration regardless of how intensively management plans to use EDI. They further conclude that management may want to consider internal integration as a risk factor during EDI implementation, because the ability to establish high interface integration may be inhibited or advanced by low or high internal integration, respectively.
Keywords: e-commerce; electronic data interchange; electronic integration; interorganizational information systems; information systems performance; health-care information systems

Business Process Reengineering in the Public Sector: The Case of the Housing Development Board in Singapore - Thong, James Y L; Yap, Chee-Sing; Seah, Kin-Lee (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Our existing knowledge of business process reengineering (BPR) is mainly derived from the experiences of private sector organizations, which have fundamentally different characteristics from public organizations. This paper represents a first step in understanding how BPR may be different in public organizations. Drawing on the public administration literature, it examines the differences between public and private organizations and their implications for BPR. Following that, it examines the BPR experience of a large public organization through an intensive case study. The case analysis shows that while there are similarities in the BPR experiences of public and private organizations, there are also notable differences. In this specific case, there were social and political pressures to reengineer, press publicity to promote BPR, a reengineering team comprised mainly of neutral staff, performance benchmarks adapted from the private sector, high-level approval for redesigned processes, and a pilot site implementation to secure further funding. It concludes with lessons learned for implementing BPR in public organizations.
Keywords: business process reengineering; information technology; public sector; case study

Adoption of Internet-Based Product Customization and Pricing Strategies - Dewan, Rajiv M; Jing, Bing; Seidmann, Abraham (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
The Internet commerce technologies have significantly reduced sellers' costs of collecting buyer preference information and managing multiple prices. Advanced manufacturing technologies have also improved sellers' manufacturing flexibility. These changes allow an online seller to offer custom products at discriminatory prices. We show that these technologies offer significant advantages to an early adopter who gains market share and profits at the expense of the conventional seller. Not only does the customizing seller charge more for customized products, it also provides standard products but charges more for them than in a conventional market. The benefits of customization disappear when both the competing sellers adopt customization. They now compete not just on prices but also on degree of customization. Consequently, we see that the sellers "over-customize," to the detriment of their profits. Both the sellers know this when choosing their customization strategies and yet they both end up choosing to customize. A seller that does not customize sees a sharp decrease in profits if its competitor customizes. This is an instance of the "Prisoner's Dilemma" type of situation in technology adoption. This confirms some key findings in IT productivity and strategic IT investments literature.
Keywords: adoption of information technology; customization; electronic commerce; flexible manufacturing systems

Managing the Costs of Informational Privacy: Pure Bundling as a Strategy in the Individual Health Insurance Market - Thatcher, Matt E; Clemons, Eric K (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Advances in genetic testing and data mining technologies have increased the availability of genetic information to insurance companies and insureds (applicants and policy holders) in the individual health insurance market (IHIM). Regulators, concerned that insurance companies will use this information to discriminate against applicants who have a genetic risk factor but who are still healthy, have implemented genetic privacy legislation in at least 18 states. However, in previous work we have demonstrated that such legislation will have unintended consequences--it will reduce consumer participation in the market without making those remaining better off. This paper identifies a mechanism, a pure bundling strategy, that insurance companies may implement in this regulatory environment to restore (or maximize) consumer participation in the market and to discourage such discrimination among insureds. This problem is examined through System Dynamics, a simulation-based modeling technique. The results will have significant implications for policy designs implemented by insurance companies, and for legislation implemented by industry regulators, and therefore, for the insurability of the individuals that rely on this market for health insurance coverage.
Keywords: bundling; information privacy; insurance markets; insurance policy; privacy; privacy cost

Limits to Value in Electronic Commerce-Related IT Investments - Chircu, Alina M; Kauffman, Robert J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
This paper extends the limits-to-value model of Davern and Kauffman to explore market and process-level factors that impact value flows to firms for their information technology (IT) investments. We characterize IT value in terms of potential value and realized value, and show how each is subject to different effects-- limits to value--that diminish the benefits of the investment. Our typology identifies barriers specific to the valuation process (industry and organizational barriers), and to the conversion process (resource, knowledge and usage barriers). Following the development of our analytical framework from existing economic and organizational theories of IT valuation and technology adoption and diffusion, we analyze a series of case studies of Internet-based travel reservation systems in electronic commerce (EC). These cases provide evidence in support of the usefulness of the framework, and illustrate the extent of the difficulties faced by organizations in making their investments in EC systems pay off.
Keywords: business value; case study; corporate travel industry; conversion barriers; electronic commerce; information technology investment; valuation barriers

Facilitating Interorganizational Learning with Information Technology - Scott, Judy E (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Increasingly, organizations collaborate to complement their core competencies. New product development, for example, is often a collaborative process, with customers and suppliers contributing complementary knowledge and skills. This study uses grounded theory to determine how and why information technology facilitates interorganizational learning. Semi-structured interviews in the disk drive industry were coded to develop a conceptual model. An important finding is that organizations collaborate closely through virtual integration. They need interorganizational learning to help them cope with the complexity of new products and the capital intensity in the disk drive industry. However, effective interorganizational collaboration needs trust. The main contribution of the model is in explaining the role of information technology in lower and higher levels of interorganizational learning, cognitive and affective trust, and virtual and humanistic interorganizational collaboration.
Keywords: collaboration; interorganizational learning; new product development; tacit knowledge; trust; virtual integration

Institutional Bridging: How Conceptions of IT-Enabled Change Shape the Planning Process - Tillquist, John (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Organizations are continually influenced by notions of management promoted through broadly held visions of managerial practice. These notions often incorporate models that generally prescribe information technologies as enabling agents for directed organizational change. Such concepts reflect highly cohesive, self-referential systems of beliefs, goals, and rules that structure perspectives about computerization and work in organizations. To achieve "breakthrough" changes in efficiency, performance, or competitive advantage, organizations must translate these high concepts into a specific model of change appropriate for their organizational context. This study shows how abstract and institutional-level conceptions about change are translated into actionable and individual-level realities, and how within this translation the organization's ability to reform can be locked into a constraining process. As consultants bridge institutionalized conceptions of management to discrete organizational activities, participants of change adopt not only the vision of change but also new ways to talk, act, and plan. This adoption may inhibit change by blocking effective discussion and forcing compliance to ill-fitting prescriptions.
Keywords: business process reengineering; change methodologies; interpretivist field study; IT enabled organizational changes; organizational transformation

The Use of Explanations in Knowledge-Based Systems: Cognitive Perspective and a Process-Tracing Analysis - Ji-Ye, Mao; Benbasat, Izak (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
This exploratory research investigates the nature of explanation use and factors that influence it during users' interaction with a knowledge-based system (KBS) for decision-making. It draws upon several cognitive perspectives to help understand when, why, and how explanations are used. A verbal protocol analysis was conducted based on a laboratory experiment involving a KBS for financial analysis. Major categories of explanation use were identified, and accounted for with relevant cognitive perspectives. Results show that explanations were requested to deal with comprehension difficulties caused by various types of perceived anomalies in KBS output. There were qualitative and quantitative differences in the nature and extent of explanation use between novices and experienced professionals. These results offer new insights to why explanations are useful and important, what factors influence explanation use, and what information should be included in explanations.
Keywords: explanations; explanations in expert systems; knowledge-based systems; verbal protocol analysis

An Empirical Investigation of the Effects of Group Support Systems (GSS) and Task Type on Group Interactions from an Influence Perspective - Huang, Wayne W; Wei, Kwok-Kee (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
This research examines an important issue that has not been specifically addressed in the GSS literature, namely, the effects of GSS and task type on group processes and social interactions. Most previous GSS research has focused on studying group outcomes, whereas the current research studies group interaction processes using two different coding methods. A conceptual research model is derived from the Theory of Time, Interaction and Performance (TIP theory) and a review of the literature on social psychology and GSS. Task and social interactions are studied from an influence perspective. The task type is varied as preference task and intellective task. The support level is varied in a GSS support and non-GSS support (i.e., face-to-face) discussion. Research results report that GSS could significantly influence group interaction processes, and tend to enhance group task interactions but dampen group social interactions.
Keywords: group interaction; group processes; group support systems

The Effects of MIS Steering Committees on Information Technology Management Sophistication - Karimi, Jahangir; Bhattacherjee, Anol; Gupta, Yash P; Somers, Toni M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Despite the ever increasing importance of information technology (IT) in firms, the extent to which IT management practices are applied creatively to critical tasks varies widely across firms. For over a decade, firms have employed IT steering committees to manage their IT resources. However, the impacts of such committees on the IT management function have not been examined in depth. This paper hypothesized relationships between the level of sophistication of IT steering committees and level of IT sophistication of management within firms, and tested those relationships empirically via a field survey of 213 IT managers in the financial services industry. Results of the study suggest that presence and roles of IT steering committees are significantly related to the level and nature of IT management sophistication within firms. Firms interested in achieving the most benefit from their steering committees should carefully select their preferred roles depending on the type and the level of IT management sophistication desired. The article concludes with discussion and implications for IT researchers and firms' executives.
Keywords: information technology management; information technology management sophistication; steering committees

Leveraging Tacit Organization Knowledge - Stenmark, Dick (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Although tacit knowledge constitutes the major part of what we know, it is difficult for organizations to fully benefit from this valuable asset. This is because tacit knowledge is inherently elusive, and in order to capture, store, and disseminate it, it is argued that it first has to be made explicit. However, such a process is difficult, and often fails due to three reasons: (1) we are not necessarily aware of our tacit knowledge, (2) on a personal level, we do not need to make it explicit in order to use it, and (3) we may not want to give up a valuable competitive advantage. During an empirical study of recommender system usage, it was noticed how such technology could be used to circumvent these problems, and make tacit knowledge, in the form of our professional interests, available to the organization as a whole. Using Polanyi's theories, it will be shown how intranet documents can be used to make tacit knowledge tangible without becoming explicit, suggesting that tacitly expressed entities are not necessarily beyond the reach of information technology.
Keywords: knowledge management; organizational knowledge; tacit knowledge

An Experiment to Assess the Performance of a Redesign Knowledge System - Nissen, Mark E (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Today, a second generation of computer-based reengineering tools employs knowledge systems technology to automate and support key intellectual activities required for effective process redesign. But a central question remains as to the effectiveness of redesign through such knowledge systems. The research described in this paper is focused on testing the effectiveness of knowledge-based, process-redesign systems. We employ one such system, called "KOPeR-lite," as a platform for experimentation to assess the relative efficacy of redesigns generated by computer versus those developed by people. In this sense, we conduct a modified Turing Test to compare redesign performance of reengineering analysts with that of the knowledge system. KOPeR-lite performs comparatively well in certain respects, but human subjects outperform the machine in others. The results provide evidence to support claims of redesign efficacy through knowledge systems, and they offer insight into the relative strengths and weaknesses of people and software applications in the reengineering domain. This study further opens up new lines of research and highlights implications for process redesign and practice, including issues associated with leading adoption of knowledge system technology and extension of redesign automation systems such as KOPeR-lite.
Keywords: business process reengineering; expert systems; knowledge systems; process redesign

Workflow-Centric Information Distribution Through E-Mail - Zhao, J Leon; Kumar, Akhil; Stohr, Edward A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Organizations require ways to efficiently distribute information such as news releases, seminar announcements, and memos. While the machinery for information storage, manipulation, and retrieval exists, research dealing directly with its distribution in an organizational context is scarce. In this paper, we address this need by first examining the pros and cons of the conventional "mailing lists" approach and then proposing new workflow mechanisms that improve the efficiency and effectiveness of information distribution through e-mail. The proposed approach is relevant to other information distribution approaches beyond e-mail. The main contributions of this study include: (1) offering a workflow perspective on organizational information distribution; (2) analysis of workflows in two new information distribution methods based on dynamic mailing lists and profile matching, respectively; and (3) proposing a new way of matching supply and demand of information that extends existing information filtering algorithms.
Keywords: electronic mail; information distribution; knowledge management; workflow management

Conversation Map: An Interface for Very Large-Scale Conversations - Sack, Warren (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Very large-scale conversation (VLSC) involves the exchange of thousands of electronic mail (e-mail) messages among hundreds or thousands of people. Usenet newsgroups are good examples (but not the only examples) of online sites where VLSCs take place. To facilitate understanding of the social and semantic structure of VLSCs, two tools from the social sciences--social networks and semantic networks--have been extended for the purposes of interface design. As interface devices, social and semantic networks need to be flexible, layered representations that are useful as a means for summarizing, exploring, and cross-indexing the large volumes of messages that constitute the archives of VLSCs. This paper discusses the design criteria necessary for transforming these social scientific representations into interface devices. The discussion is illustrated with the description of the Conversation Map system, an implemented system for browsing and navigating VLSCs.
Keywords: browsing; conversation analysis; discourse analysis; electronic mail; interface design; navigation; newsgroups; semantic networks; social networks; summarization; visualization

Stimulating Thinking: Cultivating Better Decisions with Groupware Through Categorization - Hilmer, Kelly M; Dennis, Alan R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
Previous research shows that groupware improves the exchange of information within groups. However, the additional information does not often lead to better group decisions, probably because individuals fail to process the new information they receive. This study explored the use of groupware processes that required individuals in groups to categorize information, in order to induce group members to better attend to the new information received from others and to integrate it into their own individual decision-making processes. Different groupware processes had different effects on attention to and integration of information, and ultimately on decision quality. Groupware processes that provided categories to organize information and groupware processes that required the receiver of information to categorize information increased attention to information and integration of information, which led to improved individual decision quality.
Keywords: decision making; group support systems; groupware; individual cognition; information exchange; information processing

Group Support Systems: A Descriptive Evaluations of Case and Field Studies - Fjermestdad, Jerry; Hiltz, Starr Roxanne (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
This paper presents a descriptive evaluation of 54 case and field studies from 79 published papers spanning two decades of group support systems (GSS) research. It organizes the methodology and results of these studies into a four-factor framework consisting of contextual factors, intervening factors, adaptation factors, and outcome factors. The tables will provide the GSS researcher with a summary of what has been studied. The appendices provide a detailed description of the methodology and the results.
Keywords: case study; descriptive evaluation; field studies; group support systems; research integration

The Propagation of Technology Management Taxonomies for Evaluating Investments in Information Systems - Irani, Zahir; Love, Peter E D (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
The management of Information Technology (IT) and Information Systems (IS) is considered a complex exercise by academics and practitioners alike. The reason for this is that there are ubiquitous portfolios of tangible and intangible benefits that are offered to an organization following the adoption of IT/IS that, in turn, all need managing to ensure realization. Organizations also have to take into account the direct and often larger indirect costs that are typically associated with IT/IS deployments. To provide managers with a critical insight into the management of new technology, this paper uses a case study research strategy to examine the technology management experiences of a leading U.K. manufacturing organization during its adoption of a vendor-supplied Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRPII) information system. Following the lack of attention given to human and organizational technology management factors while implementing MRPII, the vendor-based information system was later abandoned and deemed a failure. In addressing those technology management factors that were later identified as important, it was found that key employees were able to overcome a number of organizational barriers and develop and implement a bespoke MRPII system that significantly improved the organization's competitive position. Technology management taxonomies that contributed to the failure and later successful implementation of MRPII are identified and discussed. The organization's experiences in solving the problems associated with the implementation of their IS offers a learning opportunity for those companies that are seeking a competitive advantage through technology management.
Keywords: benefits; costs; evaluation; investment; MRPII; taxonomy; technology management

A Dynamic Framework for Classifying Information Systems Development Methodologies and Approaches - Iivari, Juhani; Hirschheim, Rudy; Klein, Heinz K (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2000)
This paper proposes a four-tiered framework for classifying and understanding the myriad of information systems development methodologies that have been proposed in the literature. The framework is divided into four levels: paradigms, approaches, methodologies, and techniques. This paper primarily focuses on the two intermediate levels: approaches and methodologies. The principal contribution of the framework is in providing a new kind of "deep structure" for better understanding the intellectual core of methodologies and approaches and their interrelationships. It achieves this goal by articulating a parsimonious set of foundational features that are shared by subsets of methodologies and approaches. To illustrate how the framework's deep structure provides a better understanding of methodologies' intellectual core, it is applied to eleven examples. The paper also introduces and illustrates a procedure for "accommodating" and "assimilating" new information systems development methodologies in addition to the eleven already discussed. This procedure provides the framework with the necessary flexibility for handling the continuing proliferation of new methodologies.
Keywords: deep structures; information system development; systems development methodologies

Identifying Software Project Risks: An International Delphi Study - Schmidt, Roy; Lyytinen, Kalle; Keil, Mark; Cule, Paul (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
Advocates of software risk management claim that by identifying and analyzing threats to success (i.e., risks) action can be taken to reduce the chance of failure of a project. The first step in the risk management process is to identify the risk itself, so that appropriate countermeasures can be taken. One problem in this task, however, is that no validated lists are available to help the project manager understand the nature and types of risks typically faced in a software project. This paper represents a first step toward alleviating this problem by developing an authoritative list of common risk factors. We deploy a rigorous data collection method called a "ranking-type" Delphi survey to produce a rank-order list of risk factors. This data collection method is designed to elicit and organize opinions of a panel of experts through iterative, controlled feedback. Three simultaneous surveys were conducted in three different settings: Hong Kong, Finland, and the United States. This was done to broaden our view of the types of risks, rather than relying on the view of a single culture--an aspect that has been ignored in past risk management research. In forming the three panels, we recruited experienced project managers in each country. The paper presents the obtained risk factor list, compares it with other published risk factor lists for completeness and variation, and analyzes common features and differences in risk factor rankings in the three countries. We conclude by discussing implications of our findings for both research and improving risk management practice.
Keywords: Delphi technique; IS project risk management; IS risk management; risk assessment

An Integrative Contingency Model of Software Project Risk Management - Barki, Henri; Rivard, Suzanne; Talbot, Jean (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
Drawing both from the IS literature on software project risk management and the contingency research in Organization Theory literature, the present study develops an integrative contingency model of software project risk management. Adopting a profile deviation perspective of fit, the outcome of a software development project (Performance) is hypothesized to be influenced by the fit between the project's risk (Risk Exposure) and how project risk is managed (Risk Management Profile). The research model was tested with longitudinal data obtained from project leaders and key users of 75 software projects. The results support the contingency model proposed and suggest that in order to increase project performance a project's risk management profile needs to vary according to the project's risk exposure. Specifically, high-risk projects were found to call for high information processing capacity approaches in their management. However, the most appropriate management approach was found to depend on the performance criterion used. When meeting project budgets was the performance criterion, successful high-risk projects had high levels of internal integration, as well as high levels of formal planning. When system quality was the performance criterion, successful high-risk projects had high levels of user participation.
Keywords: contingency models; software project management; software project risk

Telecommunications and Economic Activity: An Analysis of Granger Causality - Dutta, Amitava (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
The pervasive role of telecommunications in contemporary commerce is well documented, and has dramatically increased the demand for services. Across the world, countries are seeking to improve telecommunications infrastructure and benefit from anticipated increases in economic activity, and a causal relation between the two is often tacitly assumed. This paper analyzes aggregate data at the national level to see if there is any empirical evidence that supports this assumption. We apply the well established Granger test for causality using time series data for levels of telecommunications infrastructure and economic activity from thirty countries. We find that the evidence for causality from levels of telecommunications infrastructure to economic activity is stronger than that for causality in the opposite direction. Moreover, this pattern appears to hold for both industrialized and developing economies, even though the former has strong service sectors that are heavily dependent on telecommunications. These findings provide additional insights into the complex relationship between telecommunications and economic activity. Some potential policy implications are also discussed. Granger causality tests have not seen much application in the IS Literature, and we mention some IS research issues that may benefit from such analysis.
Keywords: economic activity; Granger causality; telecommunications infrastructure; telecommunications policy

A Choice Model for the Selection of Computer Vendors and Its Empirical Estimation - Kar Yan, Tam; Kai Lung, Hui (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
Despite the important role of vendors in the IT procurement process, very few studies have considered vendor characteristics and their effects on the decision outcome of IT managers. In this paper, we present a discrete choice model to examine the effects of vendor characteristics on the purchase decisions of IT managers. Our intent is to empirically assess the effects of product variety, brand name, average price, and network externalities in the selection of computer vendors. To ensure that the effects are not technology-dependent, we deliberately use long time series data to calibrate the model. Annual data at the vendor level from 1965 to 1993 is used to infer the choice criteria of IT managers in three computer categories: mainframe, minis, and small systems. Our empirical findings indicate that a broader product line and a strong brand can effectively enhance the choice probability of a vendor. Implications of these findings and possible extensions are also discussed.
Keywords: brand; choice models; IT procurement; network externality; price

Impact of Information Technology Management Practices on Customer Service - Karimi, Jahangir; Somers, Toni M; Gupta, Yash P (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
Recently, despite huge incentives and subsequent increases in investment in customer relationship management technology, many firms have not been able to increase their customer satisfaction index ratings. The purpose of this paper is to gauge whether IT management practices differ among firms where IT has a major role in transforming marketing, operations, or both, which give the firms advantage by affecting their customer service. Several research hypotheses are tested using data obtained from a survey of 213 IT-leaders in the financial services industry. The results clearly indicate that the IT-leader firms have a higher level of IT management sophistication and a higher role for their IT-leaders compared to IT-enabled customer focus, IT-enabled operations focus, and IT-laggard firms. This paper concludes with the implications for both researchers and practitioners.
Keywords: customer relationship management; customer service; information technology impact; information technology leader's role; information technology management practices; information technology management sophistication

Information Technology Competence of Business Managers: A Definition and Research Model - Bassellier, GeneviÃ¨ve; Reich, Blaize Horner; Benbasat, Izak (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
This research explores the concept of the information technology (IT) competence of business managers, defined as the set of IT-related explicit and tacit knowledge that a business manager possesses that enables him or her to exhibit IT leadership in his or her area of business. A manager's knowledge of technologies, applications, systems development, and management of IT form his or her explicit IT knowledge. This domain further extends to include knowing who knows what, which enables the manager to leverage the knowledge of others. Tacit IT knowledge is conceptualized as a combination of experience and cognition. Experience relates to personal computing, IT projects, and overall management of IT. Cognition refers to two mental models: the manager's process view and his or her vision for the role of IT. The outcomes expected from IT-competent business managers are chiefly two behaviors: an increased willingness to form partnerships with IT people and an increased propensity to lead and participate in IT projects.
Keywords: explicit and tacit knowledge; information technology competence; information technology management

Rapid Information Technology Change, Coping Mechanisms, and the Emerging Technologies Group - Benamati, John; Lederer, Albert L (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
Information technology (IT) changes rapidly, seriously challenging IT management. In response, many organizations create a formal group of IT professionals to evaluate emerging IT so they can better cope with its change. A survey based on structured interviews was mailed to a nationwide sample of 1,000 IT organizations. Two hundred forty-six respondents provided data to identify categories of coping mechanisms to handle changing IT. Five categories emerged: Education and Training, Internal Procedures, Vendor Support, Consultant Support, and Endurance. Organizations apply Education and Training more extensively than the others. Thus the research contributes to understanding the means by which organizations cope with rapid IT change. The research also found that organizations with a group dedicated to investigating emerging IT cope more extensively, but not more successfully, than do those without one. Thus the research contributes not only by providing an understanding of how organizations cope with rapid IT change, but also by suggesting the need to achieve more from the group charged with emerging IT.
Keywords: emerging technology group; environmental change; information technology management

An Empirical Analysis of Data Requirements for Financial Forecasting with Neural Networks - Walczak, Steven (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
Neural networks have been shown to be a promising tool for forecasting financial time series. Several design factors significantly impact the accuracy of neural network forecasts. These factors include selection of input variables, architecture of the network, and quantity of training data. The questions of input variable selection and system architecture design have been widely researched, but the corresponding question of how much information to use in producing high-quality neural network models has not been adequately addressed. In this paper, the effects of different sizes of training sample sets on forecasting currency exchange rates are examined. It is shown that those neural networks--given an appropriate amount of historical knowledge--can forecast future currency exchange rates with 60 percent accuracy, while those neural networks trained on a larger training set have a worse forecasting performance. In addition to higher-quality forecasts, the reduced training set sizes reduce development cost and time.
Keywords: forecasting; foreign exchange; neural networks; prediction accuracy; time series; training set size

An Empirical Investigation of User Requirements Elicitation: Comparing the Effectiveness of Prompting Techniques - Browne, Glenn J; Rogich, Michael B (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
Eliciting requirements from users and other stakeholders is of central importance to information systems development. Despite this importance, surprisingly little research has measured the effectiveness of various requirements elicitation techniques. The present research first discusses theory relevant to information requirements determination in general and elicitation in particular. We then develop a model of the requirements elicitation process. This model and its underlying theory were then used to construct a new requirements elicitation prompting technique. To provide a context for testing the relative effectiveness of the new technique, two other questioning methodologies were also operationalized as prompting techniques: (1) the interrogatories technique, which involves asking "who," "what," "when," "where," "how," and "why" questions, and (2) a semantic questioning scheme, which involves asking questions based on a theoretical model of knowledge structures. To measure the usefulness of the prompting techniques in eliciting requirements, a set of generic requirements categories was adapted from previous research to capture requirements evoked by users. The effectiveness of the three methods in eliciting requirements for a software application was then tested in an experiment with users. Results showed that the new prompting technique elicited a greater quantity of requirements from users than did the other two techniques. Implications of the findings for research and systems analysis practice are discussed.
Keywords: information system development; prompting techniques; requirements elicitation; systems analysis

General Perspectives on Knowledge Management: Fostering a Research Agenda - Grover, Varun; Davenport, Thomas H (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
We trace in pragmatic terms some of what we know about knowledge, information technology, knowledge management practice and research, and provide two complementary frameworks that highlight potential opportunities for building a research agenda in this area. The papers in this special issue are then discussed.
Keywords: information technology; knowledge; knowledge management; knowledge market; knowledge process

Organization Knowledge Management: A Contingency Perspective - Becerra-Fernandez, Irma; Sabherwal, Rajiv (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
Prior research examines several knowledge management processes, considering each as universally appropriate. Instead, we propose that the context influences the suitability of a knowledge management process. We develop a contingency framework, including two attributes of the organizational subunit's tasks: process or content orientation, and focused or broad domain, and links knowledge management processes to them: internalization for focused, process-oriented tasks: externalization for focused, content-oriented tasks; combination for broad, content-oriented tasks; and socialization for broad, process-oriented tasks. The empirical research was done at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC), based on several interviews and survey data from 159 individuals across 8 subunits. The results supported the contingency frame-work. All the knowledge management processes except externalization had a positive impact in the expected cell. At the overall level, combination and externalization, but not internalization and socialization, affect knowledge satisfaction. Some implications for practice and research are identified.
Keywords: contingency theory; knowledge management; structural equation modeling; task characteristics

Toward a Theory of Knowledge Reuse: Types of Knowledge Reuse Situations and Factors in Reuse Success - Markus, M Lynne (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
This paper represents a step toward a theory of knowledge reusability, with emphasis on knowledge management systems and repositories, often called organizational memory systems. Synthesis of evidence from a wide variety of sources suggests four distinct types of knowledge reuse situations according to the knowledge reuser and the purpose of knowledge reuse. The types involve shared work producers, who produce knowledge they later reuse; shared work practitioners, who reuse each other's knowledge contributions; expertise-seeking novices; and secondary knowledge miners. Each type of knowledge reuser has different requirements for knowledge repositories. Owing to how repositories are created, reusers' requirements often remain unmet. Repositories often require considerable rework to be useful for new reusers, but knowledge producers rarely have the resources and incentives to do a good job of repurposing knowledge. Solutions include careful use of incentives and human and technical intermediaries.
Keywords: collaboration; communities of practice; experts; group work; intermediaries; knowledge management; knowledge repositories; knowledge reuse; novices; organization memory; teams

Using Mentoring and Storytelling to Transfer Knowledge in the Workplace - Swap, Walter; Leonard, Dorothy; Shields, Mimi; Abrams, Lisa (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
The core capabilities of an organization include critical skills of employees, management systems, and norms and values. Core capabilities may be transferred formally and explicitly. However, much knowledge, particularly knowledge with rich tacit dimensions, is transferred informally through processes of socialization and internalization. We focus on two transfer mechanisms--mentoring and storytelling--that can leverage the knowledge of an organization, particularly its tacit knowledge, to build core capabilities. We draw on relevant research in learning and cognitive psychology to clarify the conditions under which mentoring and storytelling can be most effective as carriers of knowledge. Finally, we present recommendations for specific managerial practices that follow from our analysis.
Keywords: cognition; core capabilities; informal learning; mentoring; stories; tacit knowledge

Situated Learning and the Situated Knowledge Web: Exploring the Ground Beneath Knowledge Management - Nidumolu, Sarma R; Subramani, Mani R; Aldrich, Alan (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
Knowledge is now recognized as an important basis for competitive advantage and many firms are beginning to establish initiatives to leverage and manage organizational knowledge. These include efforts to codify knowledge in repositories as well as efforts to link individuals using information technologies to overcome geographic and temporal barriers to accessing knowledge and expertise. We suggest that Knowledge Management (KM) efforts, to be successful, need to be sensitive to features of the context of generation, location, and application of knowledge. To this end, we highlight the situated organizational learning perspective that views knowledge as embedded in individuals, in connections between individuals, and in artifacts as a useful lens to examine phenomena related to the establishment of KM initiatives. In an ethnographic case study of an effort to change knowledge-work processes in a market research firm, we apply the situated knowledge perspective to highlight the factors responsible for the limited success of the initiative in the firm. This study suggests that a consideration of the situated knowledge web and the alignment of the initiatives with the features of the knowledge web are central to success in knowledge management efforts in firms.
Keywords: ethnographic methods; knowledge management; organizational change; qualitative research; situated knowledge web; situated learning

Exploring Perceptions of Organizational Ownership of Information and Expertise - Jarvenpaa, Sirkka L; Staples, D Sandy (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
Beliefs of organizational ownership relate to whether information and knowledge created by an individual knowledge worker are believed to be owned by the organization. Beliefs about property rights affect information and knowledge sharing. This study explored factors that help determine an individual's beliefs about the organizational ownership of information and expertise that he or she has created. Four different situations of organizational ownership (information vs. expertise/internal vs. external sharing) were considered. The study found that a belief in self-owner-ship was positively associated with organizational ownership-suggesting a collaborative type of ownership situation for both information and expertise and for both internal (intraorganizational) and external (interorganizational) sharing situations. Organizational culture and the type of employee also influenced the beliefs of organizational ownership in all four scenarios. We conclude the paper with implications for practice and future research.
Keywords: information sharing; knowledge management; organizational culture; ownership of information

Knowledge Management: An Organizational Capabilities Perspective - Gold, Andrew H; Malhotra, Arvind; Segars, Albert H (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
A hallmark of the new economy is the ability of organizations to realize economic value from their collection of knowledge assets as well as their assets of information, production distribution, and affiliation. Despite the competitive necessity of becoming a knowledge-based organization, senior managers have found it difficult to transform their firms through programs of knowledge management. This is particularly true if their organizations have long histories of process and a tradition of business success. This research examines the issue of effective knowledge management from the perspective of organizational capabilities. This perspective suggests that a knowledge infrastructure consisting of technology, structure, and culture along with a knowledge process architecture of acquisition, conversion, application, and protection are essential organizational capabilities or "preconditions" for effective knowledge management. Through analysis of surveys collected from over 300 senior executives, this research empirically models and uncovers key aspects of these dimensions. The results provide a basis for understanding the competitive predisposition of a firm as it enters a program of knowledge management.
Keywords: knowledge capability; knowledge culture; knowledge integration; knowledge management; knowledge management processes; knowledge management structures; organizational capabilities; organizational structure; social capital; structural equation modeling; technology infrastructure

Knowledge Management Strategies: Toward a Taxonomy - Earl, Michael J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
This paper draws on primary and secondary data to propose a taxonomy of strategies, or "schools," for knowledge management. The primary purpose of this framework is to guide executives on choices to initiate knowledge management projects according to goals, organizational character, and technological, behavioral, or economic biases. It may also be useful to teachers in demonstrating the scope of knowledge management and to researchers in generating propositions for further study.
Keywords: business strategy; knowledge; knowledge management

The Impact of Technology Investments on a Firm's Production Efficiency, Product Quality, and Productivity - Thatcher, Matt E; Oliver, Jim R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
For over a decade, empirical studies in the information technology (IT) value literature have examined the impact of technology investments on various measures of performance. However, the results of these studies, especially those examining the contribution of IT to productivity, have been mixed. One reason for these mixed empirical findings may be that these studies have not effectively accounted for the impact of technology investments that increase production efficiency and improve product quality on firm productivity. In particular, it is commonly assumed that such investments should lead to gains in both profits and productivity. However, using a closed-form analytical model we challenge this underlying assumption and demonstrate that investments in certain efficiency-enhancing technologies may be expected to decrease the productivity of profit-maximizing firms. More specifically, we demonstrate that investments in technologies that reduce the firm's fixed overhead costs do not affect the firm's product quality and pricing decisions but do increase profits and improve productivity. In addition, we demonstrate that investments in technologies that reduce the variable costs of designing, developing, and manufacturing a product encourage the firm to improve product quality and to charge a higher price. Although this adjustment helps the firm to capture higher profits, we show that it will also increase total production costs and will, under a range of conditions, decrease firm productivity. Finally, we show that the direction of firm productivity following such investments depends upon the relationship between the fixed costs of the firm and the size of the market.
Keywords: analytical modeling; information technology value; product quality; production efficiency; productivity paradox; technology investment

Should We Wait?: Network Externalities, Compatibility, and Electronic Billing Adoption - Au, Yoris A; Kauffman, Robert J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
This study examines the adoption of electronic bill presentment and payment (EBPP) technology. EBPP continues to grow and will become a multi-billion dollar e-commerce industry. The technology adoption configuration in this context is quite interesting because it involves four stakeholders: billers, bill consolidators, banks, and consumers. Banks and bill consolidators compete to act as an intermediary between billers and consumers. Network externalities play a significant role: the more billers that adopt the technology, the more consumers are willing to use the services. Our analysis is based on the welfare economics concept of finding the socially optimum adoption configuration and the resulting adoption pattern in a market with sponsored technologies. The results show that due to network externalities, billers are more likely to adopt the existing technology early, though the next technology might be superior to the current one. When the higher costs of early adoption are taken into account, the model shows that billers are more willing to wait, ceteris paribus. Our results also show that anticipation of a new and better, but compatible, technology might cause billers to wait, depending on what benefits they expect by adopting early, and how much cost they anticipate to incur upgrading their technology later.
Keywords: electronic billing presentment and payment (EBPP); electronic commerce; financial services network externalities; standards; technology adoption

Achieving the Optimal Balance Between Investment in Quality and Investment in Self-Promotion for Information Products - Aron, Ravi; Clemons, Eric K (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
When producers of goods (or services) are confronted by a situation in which their offerings no longer perfectly match consumer preferences, they must determine the extent to which the advertised features of the product reflect the product's actual attributes. We find that the two important determinants of sellers' advertising strategy are the Repeg Cost Ratio, and the Repeat Sales Coefficient. The interplay of these two factors gives rise to four possible strategic scenarios. In the ambiguous fourth scenario, we show that sellers' strategy for information production goods will differ considerably from information consumption goods based on product complexity and cost of product return (borne by the buyer). Finally, we demonstrate that markets are often characterized by self-reinforcing limits on the extent of opportunistic advertising by sellers.
Keywords: information products; internet advertising; product positioning; signaling

Information Goods and Vertical Differentiation - Bhargava, Hemant K; Choudhary, Vidyanand (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
Second-degree price discrimination, that is, vertical differentiation, is widely practiced by firms selling physical goods to consumers with heterogeneous valuations. This strategy leads to market segmentation and has been shown to be optimal by many researchers. On the other hand, researchers have also demonstrated, under certain restrictive conditions, that vertical differentiation may not be optimal for information goods. We analyze vertical differentiation for a monopolist, continuing the practice of modeling consumer valuation as a linear function of product quality and consumer type but generalizing assumptions about marginal costs and consumer distributions. We show that the firm's optimal product line depends on the benefit-to-cost ratio of qualities in the choice vector. We find that a vertical differentiation strategy is not optimal when the highest quality product has the best benefit-to-cost ratio. Many information goods satisfy this property.
Keywords: information goods; market segmentation; multiproduct monopoly; price discrimination; versioning; vertical differentiation

Forward Versus Spot Buying of Information Goods - Gundepudi, Pavan; Rudi, Nils; Seidmann, Abraham (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
Several information goods, such as movie distribution rights or newspapers, are sold either at spot prices, or through forward subscription buying. Our paper considers a firm that offers an information good through spot buying, forward buying at a reduced price, or a combination of the two. The time lag between forward buying and spot buying brings about an uncertainty in a consumer's reservation price for the good at the time of advance purchase. We propose a consumer decision-making model that captures this fundamental feature and provides interesting insights into the key elements of consumer behavior. We establish that a consumer offered the choice between forward buying and waiting to (possibly) buy the good on spot faces the trade-off between a lower unit price and the value of updated preferences. We also establish that consumers preferring forward buying have a relatively high expectation and low uncertainty in their reservation prices for the good at the time of advance purchase, while those preferring spot buying have a relatively low expectation and high uncertainty in their reservation prices for the good. We apply the model to formulate and analyze the firm's problem when it is either a price taker or a price setter. When the firm is a price taker, the choice is whether to offer the good for only forward buying, only spot buying, or a combination of the two. With an example, we show that when both the spot price and the discount on forward buying are moderate in values, the seller chooses the mixed strategy of offering both forward and spot buying simultaneously. When the firm is a price setter, the goal is to choose the offering(s) and the price level(s). With the example, we show how firms selling information goods can increase their revenues by using a mixed offering strategy with both spot and forward offerings. This strategy lends itself to second-degree price discrimination by the seller when there are groups of customers potentially heterogeneous
Keywords: forward buying; information goods; spot buying; subscription

Retail Bank Services Strategy: A Model of Traditional, Electronic, and Mixed Distribution Choices - Byers, Reynold E; Lederer, Phillip J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
Design of a retail banking distribution strategy is an important issue in that industry. This paper shows the effect of new electronic distribution technologies such as PC banking on the choice of a bank's distribution strategy. We present a competitive model of distribution strategy choice, including heterogeneous consumers and banks, that allows a rich variety of customer preference and technology cost parameters. Sensitivity analysis shows how several parameters affect the competitive outcome. This analysis suggests that changing consumer behavior and attitudes, instead of banks' cost structure with new technologies significantly affects the bank's distribution strategy choice. If the segment of consumers that prefers PC banking remains small relative to the segment that prefers branches, then there will still be a market for specialized branch banks. Branch banking without PC banking services will be a viable strategy until the segment that prefers PC banking grows larger (amounting to about 40 percent of all transactions). Banks offering both branch and PC banking services can prevent successful and profitable entry by virtual banks (Internet banks offering only PC banking services) as long as the segment of customers that prefer PC banking remains relatively small (less than two-thirds of all transactions). Beyond this fraction, virtual banks will be profitable. This analysis suggests that it may be a long time (if ever) before virtual banks turn a profit.
Keywords: automated teller machines; ATM; banking industry; branch banking; channel selection; distribution channels; electronic banking; financial services; PC banking; retail banking

New Buyers' Arrival Under Dynamic Pricing Market Microstructure: The Case of Group-Buying Discounts on the Internet - Kauffman, Robert J; Bin, Wang (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
Dynamic pricing mechanisms occur on the Internet when buyers and sellers negotiate the final transaction price for the exchange of goods or services. These mechanisms are used in online auctions (e.g., eBay.com, uBid.com) and name-your-own-price (Priceline.com) formats, for example. The current research studies the dynamics of one instance of dynamic pricing--group-buying discounts--used by MobShop.com, whose products' selling prices drop as more buyers place their orders. We collect and analyze changes in the number of orders for MobShop-listed products over various periods of time, using an econometric model that reflects our understanding of bidder behavior in the presence of dynamic pricing and different levels of bidder participation. We find that the number of existing orders has a significant positive effect on new orders placed during each three-hour period, indicating the presence of a positive participation externality effect. We also find evidence for expectations of falling prices, a price drop effect. This occurs when the number of orders approaches the next price drop level and the price level for transacting will fall in the near future. The results also reveal a significant ending effect, as more orders were placed during the last three-hour period of the auction cycles. We also assess the efficacy of group-buying business models to shed light on the recent failures of many group-buying Web sites.
Keywords: bidding; dynamic pricing; electronic markets; group buying discounts; internet based selling; market microstructure; online retailing; pricing mechanisms

Keeping Mum as the Project Goes Under: Toward an Explanatory Model - Smith, H Jeff; Keil, Mark; Depledge, Gordon (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
The problem of "runaway" information systems (IS) projects can be exacerbated by the reluctance of organizational members to transmit negative information concerning a project and its status. Drawing upon relevant bodies of literature, this paper presents a model of the reluctance to report negative project news and develops hypotheses to be tested. An experiment, which was designed to test these hypotheses for both internal and external reporting alternatives, is then described. Two factors are manipulated: (1) the level of impact associated with project failure should an individual fail to report negative information, and (2) the level of observed behavioral wrongdoing associated with the project. The results explain a significant portion of the variance in the reluctance to report negative information and suggest that some differences in internal and external reporting behavior. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
Keywords: information system development; mum effect; project management; whistle-blowing

A Method for Generation of Alternatives by Decision Support Systems - Fazlollahi, Bijan; Vahidov, Rustam (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
An essential feature of active Decision Support Systems (DSS) is the ability to take the initiative in performing decision-related tasks. One possibility for providing active high cognitive level decision support is through facilitating alternative generation in DSS. The method proposed in this work enables the generation of several diverse alternatives in a single run. The method relies on the principles of effective problem-solving/decision-making and facilitates divergent processes, the separation of alternative generation from evaluation, as well as the diminishing of human cognitive biases. A hybrid DSS based on genetic algorithms (GA) and fuzzy sets is used to operationalize the approach. The paper outlines the design requirements for alternative generation in DSS and discusses the inadequacies of the "what-if" simulation and traditional optimization methods in light of these requirements. The paper further elaborates on the appropriateness of GA as a tool for alternative generation in DSS for solving complex ill-structured problems. The method is illustrated using marketing mix problem in a simulated business environment. The results suggest that the GA-based alternative generation leads to promising diverse alternatives. An active DSS incorporating the proposed method reduces the time-consuming manual search for promising alternatives and provides a higher degree of man-machine collaboration.
Keywords: alternative generation; decision support systems; genetic algorithms; marketing mix problem

Leadership Effectiveness in Global Virtual Teams - Kayworth, Timothy R; Leidner, Dorothy E (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
The trend toward physically dispersed work groups has necessitated a fresh inquiry into the role and nature of team leadership in virtual settings. To accomplish this, we assembled thirteen culturally diverse global teams from locations in Europe, Mexico, and the United States, assigning each team a project leader and task to complete. The findings suggest that effective team leaders demonstrate the capability to deal with paradox and contradiction by performing multiple leadership roles simultaneously (behavioral complexity). Specifically, we discovered that highly effective virtual team leaders act in a mentoring role and exhibit a high degree of understanding (empathy) toward other team members. At the same time, effective leaders are also able to assert their authority without being perceived as overbearing or inflexible. Finally, effective leaders are found to be extremely effective at providing regular, detailed, and prompt communication with their peers and in articulating role relationships (responsibilities) among the virtual team members. This study provides useful insights for managers interested in developing global virtual teams, as well as for academics interested in pursuing virtual team research.
Keywords: collaboration technology; computer-mediated communication systems; computer-supported cooperative work; global virtual teams; virtual teams

A Contingency Approach to Software Project Coordination - Andres, Hayward P; Zmud, Robert W (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
Before software project managers can enhance productivity and satisfaction of the software project team member, the effect of task characteristics, goal orientations, and coordination strategies on design and coding-task outcomes must be understood. A research model, which suggests that task interdependence, goal conflict, and coordination strategies significantly affect productivity and satisfaction associated with software design and coding activities, is presented. Issues such as contingency/design misfit, conflicting contingencies, and the extent of deviation to theoretically prescribed coordination mechanisms applied to contingencies are used to make predictions on productivity and process satisfaction. A 2x2x2 factorial experiment was utilized. Overall, projects characterized by low task interdependence exhibited greater productivity than projects with high task interdependence. Also, in general, organic coordination was more productive than mechanistic coordination. There was also a significant interaction between task interdependence and coordination strategy. Low goal conflict and organic coordination each lead to greater process satisfaction. Productivity results for the goal conflict manipulation was opposite to the hypothesized direction. Unconflicted contingencies addressed with consistent coordination and partially conflicted contingencies, regardless of the coordination used, exhibited significant gains in productivity. In comparison, unconflicted contingencies with inconsistent coordination and conflicted contingencies, regardless of the coordination applied, resulted in lower productivity. This suggests that there are instances where multiple contingencies, which warrant the use of different coordination strategies, can be adequately addressed with a specific coordination strategy.
Keywords: coordination; contingency theory; goal interdependence; goal conflict; multiple contingencies; process satisfaction; software project management; task interdependence; team productivity

Relationships Between Job Skills and Performance: A Study of Webmasters - Wade, Michael R; Parent, Michael (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
The main purpose of this study is to determine the mix of organizational and technical skills demanded of Webmasters, and the degree to which those skills influence job performance. The study is composed of two parts. First, a job-content analysis of 800 Webmaster positions is conducted in order to determine the mix of skills demanded of Webmasters by employers. Second, a survey of 232 Webmasters is conducted to test the relationships between those skills and job performance. The job-content analysis suggested that employers seek technical skills over organizational skills, and, in contrast, the survey results showed that Webmasters regard organizational skills as more important in performing their jobs. Structured equation modeling on the survey data showed that deficiency in both technical and organizational skills leads to lower job performance. Moreover, the effect of organizational skill deficiencies on job performance was found to be larger than that of technical skill deficiencies. For researchers, the establishment of an empirical link between job skills and job performance opens the field to further research in the skills of information systems personnel. For employers, the results suggest more attention should be paid to attracting organizational skills when recruiting information systems personnel, such as Webmasters.
Keywords: electronic commerce; individual level performance; information systems skills; information systems staffing; Internet; organizational skills; PLS; technical skills; webmasters

Determinants of User Acceptance of Digital Libraries: An Empirical Examination of Individual Differences and System Characteristics - Weiyin, Hong; Thong, James Y L; Wai-Man, Wong; Kar Yan, Tam (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
The explosion in Internet usage and huge government funding initiatives in digital libraries have drawn attention to research on digital libraries. Whereas the traditional focus of digital library research has been on the technological development, there is now a call for user-focused research. Although millions of dollars have been spent on building "usable" systems, research on digital libraries has shown that potential users may not use the systems in spite of their availability. There is a need for research to identify the factors that determine users' adoption of digital libraries. Using the technology acceptance model (TAM) as a theoretical framework, this study investigates the effect of a set of individual differences (computer self-efficacy and knowledge of search domain) and system characteristics (relevance, terminology, and screen design) on intention to use digital libraries. Based on a sample of 585 users of a university's award-winning digital library, the results strongly support the utilization of TAM in predicting users' intention to adopt digital libraries, and demonstrate the effects of critical external variables on behavior intention through perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness. All of the individual differences and system characteristics have significant effects on perceived ease of use of digital libraries. In addition, relevance has the strongest effect on perceived usefulness of digital libraries.
Keywords: computer self-efficacy; digital libraries; individual differences; information technology acceptance; technology acceptance model

Critical Factors for Assimilation of Object-Oriented Programming Languages - Ihlsoon, C H O; Young-Gul, K I M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
Object-oriented (OO) technology was expected to rapidly replace traditional functional software technology due to its productivity and quality improvement potential in software development. Still, OO technology is not yet fully understood and utilized by information systems (IS) organizations. Despite the growing interest and attention of the IS researchers and practitioners, empirical research on the assimilation process of OO technology has been limited. The present study assesses the current status of OO technology assimilation in IS organizations and identifies the factors influencing such assimilation from a software process innovation perspective. Innovation attributes and organizational characteristics were tested as determinants of the organizational OO technology assimilation based on a survey of 220 organizations. Logistic regression analysis was used to assess the relationships of innovation and organizational variables with the level of OO technology assimilation. The findings indicate that, among the innovation characteristics, perceived complexity and perceived maturity of technology have been found to have positive relationships with organizational assimilation of OO technology. Among the organizational characteristics, intensity of new technology education was positively related to organizational assimilation of OO technology, and satisfaction with existing technology was negatively related to organizational assimilation of OO technology.
Keywords: information technology innovation; object oriented technology assimilation; software process innovation; technology assimilation

Dynamic Work Distribution in Workflow Management Systems: How to Balance Quality and Performance - Kumar, Akhil; Van Der Aalst, Wil M P; Verbeek, Eric M W (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
Today's workflow management systems offer work items to workers using rather primitive mechanisms. Although most workflow systems support a role-based distribution of work, they have problems dealing with unavailability of workers as a result of vacation or illness, overloading, context-dependent suitability, deadlines, and delegation. As a result, the work is offered to too few, too many, or even the wrong set of workers. Current practice is to offer a work item to one person, thus causing problems when the person is not present or too busy, or to offer it to a set of people sharing a given role, thus not incorporating the qualifications and preferences of people. Literature on work distribution is typically driven by considerations related to authorizations and permissions. However, workflow processes are operational processes where there is a highly dynamic trade-off between quality and performance. For example, an approaching deadline and an overloaded specialist may be the trigger to offer work items to less qualified workers. This paper addresses this problem by proposing a systematic approach to dynamically create a balance between quality and performance issues in workflow systems. We illustrate and evaluate the proposed approach with a realistic example and also compare how a workflow system would implement this scenario to highlight the shortcomings of current, state of the art workflow systems. Finally, a detailed simulation model is used to validate our approach.
Keywords: metrics for work distribution; workflow management; workflow systems

An Approach to Distribution of Object-Oriented Applications in Loosely Coupled Networks - Purao, Sandeep; Jain, Hemant K; Nazareth, Derek L (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
With the move to distributed systems and an increasing emphasis on the use of object-orientation for new system design, effective distribution of object-oriented applications is becoming an important concern for designers. Early research in this area has focused on object-clustering schemes for shared memory configurations that have limited value to business applications, which must be distributed over loosely coupled networks. These applications also exhibit the properties of simpler structural relationships and a large number of instances, demanding approaches closer to fragmentation and allocation instead of clustering. This paper develops an approach to distribution of object-oriented applications over geographically dispersed sites in loosely coupled networks---taking account of concerns such as encapsulation, inheritance, messaging, and implicit joins. The approach consists of two phases. First, we develop a scheme for generating class fragments, which ensures that encapsulation is not violated and inheritance is not stretched across sites. Second, considering the message-intensive operation of object-oriented systems, we devise models for allocation of class fragments to sites that minimize inter-site traffic. A nonarbitrary procedure to compile traffic volume estimates exploiting the notion of implicit joins in object-oriented applications provides the natural linkage between the two phases. A research prototype was implemented to establish feasibility of the proposals. We demonstrate usefulness of the approach by its application for distribution of a real-world information system.
Keywords: allocation models; distributed systems; horizontal fragmentation; object distribution; object-oriented development

Investigating the Moderators of the Group Support Systems Use with Meta-Analysis - Dennis, Alan R; Wixom, Barbara H (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
This paper presents a meta-analysis that investigates five moderators (task, tool, the type of group, the size of the group, and facilitation) and their influences on the overall effects of group support systems (GSS). Results show that process satisfaction is higher for idea-generation tasks than for decision-making tasks. The GSS tool (that is, the use of level 1 or level 2 GSS) influences decision quality. Level 1 tools support the exchange of information, whereas, level 2 tools are designed to aid in decision-making. Decision quality is higher when using level 2 tools, however, there is no difference in the number of ideas generated when using level 1 or level 2 tools. Decision quality is lower for virtual teams, but there is no difference in the number of ideas generated between virtual teams and face-to-face teams using GSS. Group size is an important moderator when measuring decision time and satisfaction with process. The former is shorter for larger groups, and the latter is higher for larger groups. Process facilitation leads to higher decision quality and higher satisfaction with the process. These results illustrate the importance of examining the moderators of GSS use and the viability of conducting a meta-analysis to investigate a large body of research with seemingly conflicting or equivocal results.
Keywords: group support systems; groupware; meta-analysis

The Effects of Decision Guidance and Problem Modeling on Group Decision-Making - Barkhi, Reza (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2001)
Despite the advances in group decision support system (GDSS) research, few GDSS studies concentrate on problem-modeling tools to support decisions that cross boundaries of functional areas within the business. These decisions have a substantial effect on the profitability of the firm and account for much time and effort of senior management. This research investigates the effect of problem structuring and modeling with a GDSS on coordinated decision-making of managers in a group faced with a mixed-motive production-planning task. In a laboratory experiment, a GDSS with features supporting problem modeling is contrasted with a GDSS without such features. The results indicate that the groups using a GDSS with a problem-modeling tool outperformed the groups using a GDSS without a problem-modeling tool, but they were less efficient with respect to the time and number of messages it takes the group to converge to a final solution. User confidence in the solution did not differ between the two groups. The results of this study indicate that the problem modeling feature of a GDSS significantly influences group decision process and outcomes.
Keywords: group decision support systems; human-computer interaction; problem modeling

Toward Virtual Community Knowledge Evolution - Bieber, Michael; Engelbart, Douglas; Furuta, Richard; Hiltz, Starr Roxanne; Noll, John; Preece, Jennifer; Stohr, Edward A; Turoff, Murray; Van de Walle, Bartel (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
This paper puts forth a vision and an architecture for a community knowledge evolution system. We propose augmenting a multimedia document repository (digital library) with innovative knowledge evolution support, including computer-mediated communications, community process support, decision support, advanced hypermedia features, and conceptual knowledge structures. These tools, and the techniques developed around them, would enable members of a virtual community to learn from, contribute to, and collectively build upon the community's knowledge and improve many member tasks. The resulting Collaborative Knowledge Evolution Support System (CKESS) would provide an enhanced digital library infrastructure serving as an ever-evolving repository of the community's knowledge, which members would actively use in everyday tasks and regularly update.
Keywords: computer-mediated communication (CMC); concept maps; conceptual knowledge structures; decision analysis; digital libraries; hypermedia; hypertext; knowledge evolution; process modeling; professional societies; virtual communities; virtual educational communities; workflow

Performance-Centered Design of Knowledge-Intensive Processes - Massey, Anne P; Montoya-Weiss, Mitzi M; O'Driscoll, Tony M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
We develop and illustrate a performance-centered design (PCD) methodology for structuring knowledge-intensive, ill-defined processes. PCD provides a holistic view of a performance environment by considering the complex interdependencies between the organizational context, business processes, and individual performers. The context for our theoretical exposition is the fuzzy front-end of the new product development (NPD) process. Despite the fact that front-end concept definition and selection is central to a firm's innovation capability, these activities are ill-structured and typically the most poorly managed in the entire innovation process. Through a case study, we illustrate the proposed PCD methodology as applied to the fuzzy front-end and additionally illustrate how electronic performance support technology can be utilized to support the fuzzy front-end process. Although specifically applied within the context of one firm, we contend that the PCD methodology is applicable to other knowledge-intensive and relatively unstructured processes.
Keywords: electronic performance support; fuzzy front-end; new product development; performance-centered design; problem-solving theory; problem structure; systems theory

An Examination of the Impact of Stimuli Type and GSS Structure on Creativity: Brainstorming Versus Non-Brainstorming Techniques in a GSS Environment - Hender, Jillian M; Dean, Douglas L; Rodgers, Thomas L; Nunamaker Jr, Jay F (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
Of the techniques available for idea generation with group support systems (GSS), little research attention has been given to techniques that challenge problem assumptions or that use unrelated stimuli to promote creativity. When implementing such techniques with GSS, choices must be made regarding how to configure the GSS to deploy the initial creative stimuli and to present the pool of emerging ideas that act as additional stimuli. This paper reports the results of an experiment that compares Electronic Brainstorming (few unnamed rotating dialogues) with Assumption Reversals (many related stimuli, many named dialogues, free movement among dialogues) and Analogies (many unrelated stimuli, many named dialogues, free movement among dialogues). Analogies produced creative, but fewer, ideas, due to the use of unrelated stimuli. Assumption Reversals produced the most, but less creative, ideas, possibly due to fragmentation of the group memory and cognitive inertia caused by lack of forced movement among dialogues.
Keywords: analogy; assumption reversal; brainstorming; creativity; group support systems; idea generation; idea quality; idea quantity; laboratory experiments

Contents Matching Defined by Prototypes: Methodology Verification with Books of the Bible - Visa, Ari; Toivonen, Jarmo; Vanharanta, Hannu; Back, Barbro (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
It is common that text documents are characterized and classified by key words, index terms, or headings. We have developed a new methodology based on prototype matching. The prototype is an interesting document or a part of an extracted, interesting text. This prototype is matched with the existing document database or with the monitored document flow. The claim is that the new methodology is capable of extracting the contents of the document. To verify this hypothesis, a test with the Bible was designed. Different translations in English, Latin, Greek, and Finnish were selected to test materials. Verification tests that included the search of the ten nearest books to every book of the Bible were performed with a designed prototype version of the software application. The test results are reported in this paper.
Keywords: Bible; document classification; knowledge discovery; methodology; prototype matching; text mining; verification

Operational Knowledge Representation for Practical Decision-Making - Pomerol, Jean-Charles; Brezillon, Patrick; Pasquier, Laurent (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
For the design of an "intelligent" assistant system aimed at supporting operators' decision in subway control, we modeled operators' activity and know-how. As a result, we introduce the notion of a contextual graph, which appears as a simple solution to describe and manage operational decision-making.
Keywords: context representation; contextual graphs; decision tree; knowledge representation; operational knowledge

Asynchronous Collaboration Around Multimedia Applied to On-Demand Education - Bargeron, David; Grudin, Jonathan; Gupta, Anoop; Sanocki, Elizabeth; Li, Francis; Leetiernan, Scott (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
Multimedia content is a central component of on-demand training and education delivered over the World Wide Web. Supporting asynchronous collaboration around educational multimedia is potentially a significant tool for delivering online educational content effectively. A multimedia annotation system rightly integrated with e-mail provides a powerful platform on which to base such functionality. In this paper we describe a series of studies of such as system. First, we built a prototype annotation system and refined it based on results of laboratory tests. We then extended the system to support asynchronous collaboration for on-demand training and studied its effectiveness in two corporate training courses, assessing student experience, instructor experience, and user interface appropriateness. Having identified possibilities for enhancing engagement and collaboration with the tool, we conducted another set of laboratory studies. Through this iterative process we are creating a platform and identifying processes for its use, which enable students and instructors to exploit the advantages of asynchronous education while compensating for the reduction in face-to-face interaction.
Keywords: annotation; asynchronous collaboration; distance education; group interaction; multimedia; workplace training

Training for Crisis Decision-Making: Psychological Issues and Computer-Based Solutions - Sniezek, Janet A; Wilkins, David C; Wadlington, Patrick L; Baumann, Michael R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
Crises demand swift and effective decision-making; yet there are many problems in training personnel on the skills necessary to achieve the goals of crisis management. This paper has three objectives concerning training for crisis management. First we integrate diverse literatures and present a framework for an understanding of the unique challenges in crisis management training, and the role of training systems with capabilities for simulation, immersion, and critiquing. Second, we describe an example of a trainer for ship damage control, called DC-Train, which addresses these challenges. This system consists of a first-principles simulator that generates large numbers of realistic scenarios, an immersive multimedia interface that helps elicit psychological processes involved in actual crisis management, and a critiquing expert system that provides real-time and post-session feedback on human decision-making performance. Finally, we present an empirical method for evaluating the effectiveness of such a system for crisis management training. Results of evaluation experiments with participants in a ship damage control training program indicate that the described computer-based trainer has psychological realism and improves decision-making performance.
Keywords: artificial intelligence; computer-based training; crisis management; human-computer interaction; human resource management; ship damage control

Becoming a Virtual Professor: Pedagogical Roles and Asynchronous Learning Networks - Coppola, Nancy Walters; Hiltz, Starr Roxanne; Rotter, Naomi G (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
Asynchronous Learning Networks (ALN) are a form of "e-learning" that emphasizes the use of the Internet to support class discussions and activities. This paper presents a qualitative study of role changes that occur when faculty become online or "virtual" professors. In 20 semi-structured interviews of faculty, coded with pattern analysis software, the authors captured role changes enacted by instructors in ALN settings--cognitive roles, affective roles, and managerial roles. The cognitive role, which relates to mental processes of learning, information storage, and thinking, shifts to one of deeper cognitive complexity. The affective role, which relates to influencing the relationships between students, the instructor, and the classroom atmosphere, required faculty to find new tools to express emotion, yet they found the relationships with students more intimate. The managerial role, which deals with class and course management, requires grater attention to detail, more structure, and additional student monitoring. Overall, faculty reported a change in their teaching persona, toward more precision in their presentation of materials and instruction, combined with a shift to a more Socratic pedagogy, emphasizing multilogues with students. The main sources of frustration and of fulfillment of the virtual professor is explored.
Keywords: affective role; asynchronous learning networks; cognitive role; e-learning; managerial roles; role theory

Examining a Model of Information Technology Acceptance by Individual Professionals: An Exploratory Study - Chau, Patrick Y K; Hu, Paul J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
The recent proliferation of information technology designed to support or enhance an individual professional's task performance has made the investigation of technology acceptance increasingly challenging and significant. This study investigates technology acceptance by individual professionals by examining physicians' decision to accept telemedicine technology. Synthesized from relevant prior research, a generic research framework was built to provide a necessary foundation upon which a research model for telemedicine technology acceptance by physicians could be developed. The research model was then empirically examined, using data collected from more than 400 physicians practicing in public tertiary hospitals in Hong Kong. Results of the study suggest several areas where individual "professionals" might subtly differ in their technology acceptance decision-making, as compared with end users and business managers in ordinary business settings. Specifically, physicians appeared to be fairly pragmatic, largely anchoring their acceptance decisions in the usefulness of the technology rather than its ease of use. When making decisions to accept a technology, physicians expressed considerable concerns about the compatibility of the technology with their practices, placed less importance on controlling technology operations, and attached limited weight to peers' opinions about using the technology. Based on results obtained from this study, the initially proposed framework for technology acceptance by individual professionals was revised to a "hierarchical, three-layer" structure with the individual context at the inner core, the implementation context on the outermost layer, and the technological context residing in the middle. Implications for information systems research and telemedicine management practice that have emerged from the study's findings are also discussed.
Keywords: information technology acceptance; information technology adoption; professional users; telemedicine technology management

Learning to Implement Enterprise Systems: An Exploratory Study of the Dialectics of Change - Robey, Daniel; Ross, Jeanne W; Boudreau, Marie-Claude (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
This paper reports on a comparative case study of 13 industrial firms that implemented an enterprise resource planning (ERP) system. It compares firms based on their dialectic learning process. All firms had to overcome knowledge barriers of two types: those associated with the configuration of the ERP package, and those associated with the assimilation of new work processes. We found that both strong core teams and carefully managed consulting relationships addressed configuration knowledge barriers. User training that included both technical and business processes, along with a phased implementation approach, helped firms to overcome assimilation knowledge barriers. However, all firms in this study experienced ongoing concerns with assimilation knowledge barriers, and we observed two different approaches to address them. In a piecemeal approach, firms concentrated on the technology first and deferred consideration of process changes. In a concerted approach, both the technology and process changes were undertaken together. Although most respondents clearly stated a preference for either piecemeal or concerted change, all firms engaged in practices that reflected a combination of these approaches.
Keywords: dialectics of change; Enterprise Resource Planning; information technology implementation; organizational learning; process theory

Implementation Team Responsiveness and User Evaluation of Customer Relationship Management: A Quasi-Experimental Design Study of Social Exchange Theory - Gefen, David; Ridings, Catherine M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems require extensive configuration during which users come into extensive contact with the technical implementation team. Previous research examining other Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) modules has shown that user perception of the responsiveness of such teams, as an indicator of a possible social exchange, is significantly associated with an increased favorable assessment of the new system and ultimately its adoption, the reason being that perceived responsiveness creates a constructive social exchange. However, previous research, using survey data alone, did not examine causation. The objective of this study is to examine, using a quasi-experimental design, whether different degrees of actual responsiveness in different sites during CRM implementation result in significant differences in the users' favorable assessment of the correctness and ultimately their approval of a new CRM. The data support these hypotheses, but show that the downstream effects of actual responsiveness are mediated by perceived responsiveness. Implications concerning the social exchange relationship during CRM adoption are discussed.
Keywords: customer relationship management; Enterprise Resource Planning; social exchange theory

Investment in Enterprise Resource Planning: Business Impact and Productivity Measures - Hitt, Lorin M; Wu, D J; Xiaoge, Zhou (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) software systems integrate key business and management processes within and beyond a firm's boundary. Although the business value of ERP implementations has been extensively debated in trade periodicals in the form of qualitative discussion or detailed case studies, there is little large-sample statistical evidence on whether the benefits of ERP implementation exceed the costs and risks. With multiyear multi-firm ERP implementation and financial data, we find that firms that invest in ERP tend to show higher performance across a wide variety of financial metrics. Even though there is a slowdown in business performance and productivity shortly after the implementation, financial markets consistently reward the adopters with higher market valuation (as measured by Tobin's q). Due to the lack of mid- and long-term post-implementation data, future research on the long-run impact of ERP is proposed.
Keywords: Enterprise Resource Planning systems; information technology; productivity; productivity analysis; ROI

The Influence of Multimedia on Improving the Comprehension of Organizational Information - Lim, Kai H; Benbasat, Izak (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
Text is the predominant form of organizational information. Comprehending text-based information requires intensive cognitive processing effort on the part of readers. Drawing on multimedia literature, this study identified a characteristic of multimedia presentations, namely complementary cues, which have the potential to improve the comprehensibility of organizational information. A set of hypotheses about the benefits of multimedia over text-based presentations was generated based on the theoretical perspective that we developed. These predictions were tested through a laboratory experiment using a simulated multimedia intranet. Results show that multimedia facilitates the retention and subsequent recall of explanative information but not of descriptive information. Explanative information is organized facts connected by their underlying functional relationships. Descriptive information consists of isolated facts without an explanation of the relationships between these facts. The ability to retain and recall explanative information, in turn, leads to a greater ability to make correct inferences about new organizational situations.
Keywords: human information processing; information comprehension; information presentation; information recall; learning and inference; multimedia

Multiparty Negotiation Support: The Role of Visualization's Influence on the Development of Shared Mental Models - Swaab, Roderick I; Postmes, Tom; Neijens, Peter; Kiers, Marius H; Dumay, Adrie C M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
The study examines a method for supporting multiparty negotiations by means of a Negotiation Support System (NSS). More specifically, this study investigated the effect of visualization support on the development of shared mental models among negotiators who resolved a spatial planning dispute. The objective of this study is to determine how to support the development of shared mental models in order to stimulate more productive negotiations. A further goal is to provide guidelines for the design of NSS. Compared with a control condition, visualization improved three aspects of negotiations: visualization support aided negotiators' convergence of perceptions of reality and had positive socio-emotional consequences in terms of increasing cohesiveness and entitativity. As a result, groups with visualization support reached consensus more easily and were more satisfied with the process. In sum, the current study provides support for the idea that presenting negotiators with unambiguous information helps negotiators develop shared mental models.
Keywords: multiparty negotiation; negotiation support systems; pro-social climate; shared mental model; visualization of information

Software Functionality: A Game Theoretic Analysis - Kai Lung, Hui; Kar Yan, Tam (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
Digital products are now widely traded over the Internet. Many researchers have started to investigate the optimal competitive strategies and market environments for such products. This paper studies the competitive decisions made about software, a major class of digital products that can be easily sold through computer networks. Instead of focusing on traditional competitive dimensions, such as price or quantity, we study the number of functions that should be incorporated into the software. Using game theoretic analysis, we show that there is no fixed strategy that is optimal for software developers in a duopoly market with one-stage simultaneous moves. This happens because, given one developer's decision, there is always an incentive for the other developer to deviate and achieve higher payoffs. Nevertheless, a unique reactive equilibrium does emerge if we consider the two-stage variation of the model, where the two developers both enjoy substantial profits by serving different segments of the market. Essentially, the first mover commits himself to a certain functionality level that induces a rational follower to target his software to the (previously) unattended segment. We discuss our results in light of scale economies in the software development process and market segmentation.
Keywords: development cost; digital products; functionality; game theory; software

An Integrated Performance Model of Information Systems Projects - Aladwani, Adel M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
This study makes an initial attempt to validate an integrated, theoretically driven performance model of information systems (IS) projects. IS project performance is defined in terms of task, psychological, and organizational outcomes. We draw upon different theoretical perspectives including IS, organizational teams, and project management to link six categories of variables to IS project performance: technology characteristics, project characteristics, task characteristics, people characteristics, organizational characteristics, and work processes. Data collected via a field survey of IS project leaders in 84 manufacturing organizations were used to test the proposed model. Support is found for three conclusions: (1) IS project performance is a multidimensional construct, (2) certain preconditions falling into the above categories have to exist to achieve a high performing IS project, and (3) there is a possible cross-relationship among the variables studied by IS research, organizational teams research, and project management research. We discuss the implications of this study for future research and managerial practice.
Keywords: information systems development; information systems projects; integrated performance models; project performance

Individual Trust in Online Firms: Scale Development and Initial Test - Bhattacherjee, Anol (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
The importance of trust as a key facilitator of electronic commerce is increasingly being recognized in academic and practitioner communities. However, empirical research in this area has been beset by conflicting conceptualizations of the trust construct, inadequate attention to its underlying dimensions, causes, and effects, and lack of a validated trust scale. This paper addresses these limitations in part by theoretically conceptualizing and empirically validating a scale to measure individual trust in online firms. The proposed scale taps into three key dimensions of trust: trustee's ability, benevolence, and integrity. An iterative testing and refinement procedure using two field surveys of online retailing and online banking users, leads to a final seven-item trust scale that exhibits adequate levels of reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and nomological validity. It is expected that the scale presented in this paper will assist future empirical research on trust in online entities.
Keywords: e-commerce metrics; electronic commerce; online trust; scale development; trust

Profiling Web Usage in the Workplace: A Behavior-Based Artificial Intelligence Approach - Anandarajan, Murugan (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
Employees' nonwork-related Web surfing behavior results in millions of dollars of expenditure for organizations. This paper proposes the use of a behavior-based artificial intelligence system to profile employee Web usage behavior. Two artificial neural networks (ANN) incorporating genetic algorithm techniques were developed for this purpose. The system was validated with two different data sets. The classification performance of the neural network models was compared to that of a statistical method. The results indicate that one of the ANN models, namely the simple recurrent network, was a superior classifier for this behavior-based problem. In addition, the uncertainty inherent in such classification decisions was examined with a loss matrix, and the holdout samples were reclassified using a loss matrix. The output of this intelligent system can be highly beneficial to managers in designing effective Web management policies.
Keywords: artificial neural networks; classification models; genetic algorithms; loss matrix; misclassification rate; profiling; Web usage

The Shareholder-Wealth and Trading-Volume Effects of Information-Technology Infrastructure Investments - Chatterjee, Debabroto; Pacini, Carl; Sambamurthy, V (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
Despite the rising tide of investments in information technologies (IT) infrastructures, empirical evidence about the effects of such investment moves is scarce. Stock market investors provide one appropriate perspective on the value-creation and growth potential of IT infrastructure investments through their reactions to specific IT infrastructure investment moves by business firms. This research utilizes the event-study analysis approach to examine if IT infrastructure investments are associated with significantly positive abnormal stock market returns and rises in trading volume when firms announce such investments. Drawing upon a sample of IT infrastructure announcements in the early 1990s, this research finds significant evidence that positive abnormal returns and increased trading volume are associated with IT infrastructure investment announcements. Further, when such investments are contrasted with investments in IT applications, evidence exists that infrastructure investments generate greater excess returns and a larger increase in trading volume than applications investments do. The evidence provides empirical support for the potential of IT infrastructure investments to be perceived as a platform for growth and revenue generation opportunities in contemporary business firms.
Keywords: event study; investment announcements; information technology infrastructure

Managing Information Technology Investment Risk: A Real Options Perspective - Benaroch, Michel (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
Past information systems research on real options has focused mainly on evaluating information technology (IT) investments that embed a single, a priori known option (such as, deferral option, prototype option). In other words, only once a specific isolated option is identified as being embedded in a target IT investment, does this research call upon using real options analysis to evaluate the option. In effect, however, because real options are not inherent in any IT investment, they usually must be planned and intentionally embedded in a target IT investment in order to control various investment-specific risks, just like financial risk management uses carefully chosen options to actively manage investment risks. Moreover, when an IT investment involves multiple risks, there could be numerous ways to reconfigure the investment using different series of cascading (compound) options. In this light, we present an approach for managing IT investment risk that helps to rationally choose which options to deliberately embed in an investment so as to optimally control the balance between risk and reward. We also illustrate how the approach is applied to an IT investment entailing the establishment of an Internet sales channel.
Keywords: information technology investment evaluation; information technology investment management; information technology investment risk; information technology investment; option-pricing models; real options; risk management

Information-Technology Investment Decisions: When Do Costs and Benefits in the Social Subsystem Matter? - Ryan, Sherry D; Harrison, David A; Schkade, Lawrence L (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
The inclusion of social subsystem costs and benefits in information technology (IT) investment choices has been a difficult problem for IT decision-makers. Past research has shown that although some organizations adequately and consistently consider social subsystem issues when making IT investment decisions, many do not. This demonstrates a discrepancy between prescriptive theory and descriptive evidence. Our study addresses this theory-practice disconnection by investigating which firms, and under what conditions IT investments are likely to follow or violate prescriptions. Data collected from a national sample of 200 firms shed light on the firm and situational factors that affect the consideration of social subsystem issues during the IT investment decision process. The amount of social subsystem disruption associated with the IT in question, the strategic relevance of the IT to the organization, and the firm's continuous-learning culture each have direct or interactive influences on the decision process. Specifically, they impact the consideration of social subsystem costs and benefits for IT investments. Organizational size and industry are unrelated to this facet of decision-making. Overall, the empirical results help us better understand (1) what kinds of IT decisions cause stronger evaluation of social subsystem costs and benefits, (2) what types of firms give the greatest consideration to these issues, and (3) which intangible social subsystem costs or benefits are seen as the most important.
Keywords: decision making processes; information technology investment decisions; intangible costs and benefits; sociotechnical systems

Research in Information Systems: An Empirical Study of Diversity in the Discipline and Its Journals - Vessey, Iris; Ramesh, V; Glass, Robert L (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
Throughout its history, the information systems (IS) discipline has engaged in extensive self-examination, particularly with regard to its apparent diversity. Our overall objective in this study is to better understand the diversity in IS research, and the extent to which diversity is universal across journals that publish IS research. We developed a classification system that comprises five key characteristics of diversity (reference discipline, level of analysis, topic, research approach, and research method) based on a review of prior literature. We then examined articles over a five-year period, from 1995 to 1999, in five journals acknowledged as the top journals of the field, at least in North America. Analyses reveal considerable diversity in each of the key characteristics. Perhaps not surprisingly, the research approach used is more focused with most studies being conducted using hypothetico-deductive approaches, whereas reference discipline is perhaps the most diverse of the characteristics examined. An interesting finding is that IS itself emerged as a key reference discipline in the late 1990s. The 'Journal of Management Information Systems' and 'Information Systems Research' publish articles displaying the greatest diversity, and 'MIS Quarterly' and 'Decision Sciences' publish articles that focus on subsets of the field. Our research provides a foundation for addressing the direction that diversity in the IS discipline takes over time. In the shorter term, researchers can use our classification system as a guide to writing abstracts and selecting key words, and the findings of our journal analyses to determine the best outlet for their type of research.
Keywords: information systems journals; information systems research; information systems research diversity; level of analysis; reference discipline; research methods

Development of a Measure for the Organizational Learning Construct - Templeton, Gary F; Lewis, Bruce R; Snyder, Charles A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
The concept of organizational learning (OL) is receiving an increasing amount of attention in the research and practice of management information systems (MIS) due to its potential for affecting organizational outcomes, including control and intelligence, competitive advantage, and the exploitation of knowledge and technology. As such, further development of the salient issues related to OL is warranted, especially measurement of the construct. Based on a domain definition grounded in the literature, this research represents the initial work in developing an empirically reliable and valid measure of organizational learning. The rigorous method utilized in the derivation of this measure, which integrates two methodological frameworks for instrument development, is the main strength of this work. The result is an eight-factor, 28-item instrument for assessing OL, derived from a sample of 119 knowledge-based firms. The empirically derived factors are awareness, communication, performance assessment, intellectual cultivation, environmental adaptability, social learning, intellectual capital management, and organization grafting. MIS function managers can use these factors to gauge organizational or subunit success in the creation and diffusion of new applications of information technology.
Keywords: innovation; organizational change; organizational intelligence; organizational learning; scale development; technology adoption

The Role of Similarity in the Reuse of Object-Oriented Analysis Models - Irwin, Gretchen (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
Software reuse--the application of existing software artifacts in the development of a new system--has been claimed to dramatically improve system development productivity and quality. These claims have been particularly pronounced with respect to the reuse of object-oriented (OO) software artifacts. However, the empirical evaluations of these claims are relatively sparse and often inconsistent. This paper begins to address the gap in the literature. A verbal-protocol study was conducted in which analysts created a model for a problem (the target) and were given an example problem and solution (the source) to reuse. The results show little support for reuse in OO analysis. First, reuse had no effect on the quality of the OO analysis models. Subjects given a highly reusable example produced solutions that were no better than those of subjects in the control group. Second, the degree of similarity between the source and target problems did have an effect on the reuse process, although it did not impact the reuse outcome. Subjects given the example with the most similarity to the target problem quickly recognized the reuse potential, attempted a fair amount of reuse, but made several errors stemming from lazy copying. Subjects given an example with a lesser (but still significant) degree of similarity were often unable to recognize the reuse potential, and thus engaged in less rescue activity. Thus, the characteristics of the source-target comparison that facilitate noticing the reuse potential of the source do not necessarily help in applying the source solution to the target problem. These results suggest that the claims associated with reuse should be treated with a healthy dose of skepticism.
Keywords: analogical reasoning; object-oriented analysis; software reuse; verbal protocol

A Discrepancy Model of Information System Personnel Turnover - Jiang, James J; Klein, Gary (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
Turnover of information system (IS) personnel is a critical problem for organizations. To gain a better understanding of turnover, researchers have explored career orientations that characterize an employee's internal motivations and desires. The inability of an organization to match career desires is often related to measures indicative of turnover in IS employees, including intent to leave and career dissatisfaction, though empirical evidence is indirect and inconclusive. Using career orientations, this study explicitly models the impact of the discrepancy between the wants of employees and employee perceptions of how their organization satisfies those wants. The model is based on discrepancy theory and predicts the gap is closely related to the turnover indicators. Model predictions hold true for a sample of 153 IS personnel. These results indicate the importance of developing career plans that employees perceive as matching their wants.
Keywords: career orientations; career satisfaction; discrepancy theory; employee turnover; information systems personnel

Job Satisfaction of Information Technology Workers: The Impact of Career Orientation and Task Automation in a CASE Environment - McMurtrey, Mark E; Grover, Varun; Teng, James T C; Lightner, Nancy J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
This study investigates the job satisfaction of information technology (IT) professionals in an environment where computer aided software engineering (CASE) tools are used. Although the recent downturn in the economy might have temporarily eased the IT labor shortage, issues of recruitment and retention of qualified personnel are key to the success of IS development projects. This study presents a model of the combination of CASE tool usage and job satisfaction as related to internal career orientation. Two hypotheses based on this model were tested using empirical evidence collected through a survey method. The first examines whether the career orientation of IS personnel influences their job satisfaction. The second incorporates the impact of CASE tool usage on this relationship. The results indicate that in a CASE tool environment, personnel with a predominant technical career orientation have more job satisfaction than those with a predominant managerial orientation. However, there is a significant and positive synergy between the sophistication of the CASE tool used and managerial competence orientation leading to higher job satisfaction. These findings indicate that combating the IT personnel shortage through task automation may also increase worker satisfaction, thereby decreasing turnover. Careful selection of the CASE tool for use may result in this win-win situation.
Keywords: career orientations; CASE; information systems development; information technology workers; job satisfaction

The Dynamic Effects of Group Support Systems on Group Meetings - Reinig, Bruce A; Shin, Bongsik (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
A number of theoretical models have been presented in group support systems (GSS) literature, which suggest that various GSS structures such as anonymity and simultaneity, influence group interaction, which in turn influences group productivity and meeting outcomes. Examples of such theories include the adaptive structuration theory and the balance of forces model and they could generally be described as dynamic or procedural in nature. Much of the empirical research that tests such theories, however, is deterministic in that it often compares final outcomes between various levels of technological support without measuring and testing (1) the influence that the technological structures have on group interaction and group dynamics, and (2) the corresponding influence that group interaction has on meeting outcomes. This paper reports a study that examines the validity of such dynamic theories by examining the relationships between GSS structures, group dynamics, and meeting outcomes over time. Four process constructs (production blocking, free riding, sucker effect, and evaluation apprehension) and three meeting outcome constructs (group cohesion, affective reward, and self-reported learning) were initially selected for the study. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze longitudinal survey data gathered from an experiment conducted with naturally occurring groups. The model tested was found to be valid and GSS was found to be effective in reducing process losses. However, the findings also revealed that process losses vary in the degree to which they influence meeting outcomes and certain meeting outcomes, such as affective reward, were found to be heavily influenced by other meeting outcomes, such as group cohesion and self-reported learning. Theoretical implications of the study and methodology are discussed.
Keywords: adaptive structuration theory; computer-mediated communication (CMC); group support systems

Newly Vulnerable Markets in an Age of Pure Information Products: An Analysis of Online Music and Online News - Clemons, Eric K; Gu, Bin; Karl Reiner, Lang (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
We describe the emerging competition between music companies and their star acts and the role of online distribution in this industry. We then contrast this with the lack of competition newspapers will face from their reporters, writers, and photographers, but identify other possible competitors for newspaper publishers. We examine what resources have previously enabled record companies to lock in their star acts and ways in which technology has altered artists' abilities to reach the market independently and thus their dependency upon record companies. We examine which resources have seen their value eroded in the newspaper industry and the remaining value that the newspaper company still creates, other than building stories, adding advertising, and printing and selling the papers. We consider what part of the newspaper business is vulnerable, if any, and where threats may arise. We combine the resource-based view of competitive advantage to examine which industry may have become newly easy to enter, and the theory of newly vulnerable markets to assess which industry may actually have become vulnerable as a result. Our analyses are then used to create a computer simulation model to make the implications more explicit under a range of assumptions.
Keywords: electronic commerce; music industry; newly vulnerable markets; newspaper industry; resource-based competition

A Model of Neutral B2B Intermediaries - Byungjoon, Yoo; Choudhary, Vidyanand; Mukhopadhyay, Tridas (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
Business-to-business (B2B) electronic commerce has become an important issue in the debate about electronic commerce. How should the intermediary charge suppliers and buyers to maximize profits from such a marketplace. We analyze a monopolistic B2B marketplace owned by an independent intermediary. The marketplace exhibits two-sided network effects where the value of the marketplace to buyers is dependent on the number of suppliers, and the value to suppliers is dependent on the number of buyers and suppliers. When these two-sided network effects exist, we find that the optimal price for buyers and the fraction of buyers in the electronic market are dependent on the switching cost and the strength of the network effect of both types: buyers and suppliers. The same is true for the optimal price for suppliers and the fraction of suppliers in the electronic market. In other words, the parameters that define the buyers also affect the optimal price for suppliers and the fraction of suppliers in the electronic market, and vice versa. Our results also point some counterintuitive optimal pricing strategies that depend on the nature of the industry served by the marketplace.
Keywords: business-to-business e-commerce; intermediation; network effect; pricing strategy

Market Segmentation and Information Development Costs in a Two-Tiered Fee-Based and Sponsorship-Based Web Site - Riggins, Frederick J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
We develop an analytical model of a separating equilibrium for a two-tier fee-based and sponsorship-based information Web site. We examine the monopolist's choice of content quality and price for a fee-based site targeted at high-type consumers and the content quality level for a sponsored site offered free to all consumers. We show how a reduction in the potential for advertising revenues results in lower content quality on the free site, but permits the seller to raise the fee charged to high-type consumers. We also show how differences in consumer tolerances to ads affects content quality, banner ad volume, and usage fees. In particular, the seller can increase profits by making ads more attractive to either high- or low-type consumers, but rarely both at the same time. We show the conditions that determine which consumer segment the seller should seek to improve ad relevancy.
Keywords: information Web sites; online market segmentation; product cannibalization

Management and Valuation of Advertisement-Supported Web Sites - Dewan, Rajiv M; Freimer, Marshall L; Jie, Zhang (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
A key decision by the manager of an advertisement-supported Web site is the balance between content and advertising. Content is costly but attracts viewers, whereas advertisement generates revenues but repels viewers. The period-by-period balancing decision is further complicated by the growth and diffusion nature of Web site viewership. This decision problem is modeled as a control problem that captures the essence of the business model of such Web sites. Using this model we show that it may be optimal for the Web site to initially have negative cash flows from having fewer advertisements and more content. This is more than compensated for by future profits from the Web site. We use the solution to the control problem to also develop a forward-looking measure of Web traffic called the 'discounted total traffic.' We empirically examine this new measure and find that it better predicts market capitalization than backward-looking measures like page views.
Keywords: advertising policy; content management; market capitalization; Web traffic

Evolution of Prices in Electronic Markets Under Diffusion of Price-Comparison Shopping - Kocas, Cenk (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
Price-comparison engines allow customers to compare product offerings of online sellers and reveal almost complete information on the alternatives, and hence create erosion in store loyalty. Consequently, the competitive dynamics of online sales are affected in markets where price-comparison shopping is diffusing rapidly. We develop a dynamic competitive pricing model that deals with an asymmetric duopolistic market where the segment sizes are determined through a diffusion process. Our diffusion-of-innovations approach allows us to dynamically capture the proportion of informed and uninformed customers in a homogenous goods market. We use this model to analyze how strategic profit-maximization behavior evolves over time. This analysis shows that the increasing numbers of price-comparison shoppers pull prices down, and the rate at which prices decrease is shaped by the diffusion curve and brand preference. Our analysis shows that stores with loyal customers, or with a preference for their brands, can attain higher profits further into the diffusion process. The direct implication is that firms should use their information technology, operations, and marketing capabilities to create, enhance, and cultivate stronger preferences for, and loyalty to, their brand names to survive the inevitable information-rich markets of tomorrow.
Keywords: diffusion of innovations; Internet economics; price-comparison engines; price-comparison shopping; price competition

A Query-Driven Approach to the Design and Management of Flexible Database Systems - Chen, Andrew N K; Goes, Paulo B; Marsden, James R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
The need for timely information in the e-business world provides the impetus to develop a flexible database system with the capability to adapt and maintain performance levels under changing queries and changing business environments. Recognizing the importance of providing fast access to a variety of read-only applications in today's e-business world, we introduce the systems architecture for developing and implementing a flexible database system to achieve considerable gains in processing times of read queries. The key component of a flexible database system is query mining, the concept of determining relationships among query properties, alternative database structures, and query processing times. We validate the flexible database system concept through extensive laboratory experiments, where we embed learning tools to demonstrate the implementation of query mining.
Keywords: database management; database querying; data mining; inductive learning; information retrieval; neural networks

Effects of Local Versus Global Schema Diagrams on Verification and Communication in Conceptual Data Modeling - Parsons, Jeffrey (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
Much research in conceptual data modeling has focused on developing techniques for view integration, or combining local conceptual schemas into a global schema. Local schemas are argued to be important in verifying conceptual data requirements before proceeding to database design. View integration is claimed to fulfill two purposes: First, a global conceptual schema is a prerequisite to logical design and implementation. Second, global schemas are thought to be useful in improving organizational communication among diverse user groups with different perspectives and information needs. However, performing view integration is difficult. Moreover, there is no empirical evidence that global schemas either impede local verification or support communication. Drawing on classification research, this paper develops and tests claims about the impact of schema structure (local versus global) on verification and communication. Local schemas are hypothesized to better support verification than global schemas. When different local views contain conflicting structure, local schemas are expected to be superior in supporting communication. However, when local views contain complementary structure, global schemas are expected to be superior in supporting communication. A laboratory experiment was conducted to test these predictions. The results support the hypotheses. Implications for the practice of database design and for further research are considered.
Keywords: classification theory; conceptual database models; database schemas; empirical data modeling research; view integration

Effects of Group Support Systems and Content Facilitation on Knowledge Acquisition - Ron Chi-Wai, Kwok; Jian, Ma; Vogel, Douglas R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
This paper investigates the effects of group support systems (GSS) and content facilitation on individual knowledge acquisition in general, and on changes in an individual's knowledge structures in particular as indicated through concept mapping development. We present a model explaining the enabling effects of GSS and content facilitation on group processes (group participation, quality of feedback, domination, and communication barrier), cooperation in learning, and individual knowledge structures (knowledge complexity, integration, and commonality). An experiment that employed a 2X2 factorial design was used to explore the main and interaction effects of GSS and content facilitation on knowledge acquisition. Experimental subjects were randomly assigned to one of the four treatment groups; that is, nonfacilitation and non-GSS, nonfacilitation and GSS, facilitation and non-GSS, facilitation and GSS. Results of the experiment indicated that both GSS and content facilitation positively affect certain aspects of individual knowledge acquisition. Content facilitation particularly enhanced learners' knowledge commonality, whereas GSS enhanced the quality of feedback and cooperation in learning, and reduced domination and communication barrier. However, the results also indicated that GSS and content facilitation have crossover interaction effects on group participation and knowledge commonality. The effects of combining GSS and content facilitation were not additive in this study. Explanations are presented.
Keywords: collaborative learning; facilitation; group support systems

Turnover of Information Technology Workers: Examining Empirically the Influence of Attitudes, Job Characteristics, and External Markets - Thatcher, Jason Bennett; Stepina, Lee P; Boyle, Randall J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2002)
This paper presents and tests a conceptual model linking perceptions of the internal work environment and external markets to information technology (IT) worker turnover. The model focuses on organizational commitment (OC) as the primary predictor of turnover intention. We suggest that OC mediates perceptions of the workplace and external environment on turnover intention. Specifically, we hypothesize that OC mediates the influence of (1) job satisfaction, (2) perceived job characteristics, (3) perceived competitiveness of pay, and (4) perceived job alternatives on turnover intention. Also, perceived job alternatives are modeled as having a direct effect on turnover intention. Analysis provides moderate empirical support for the research model. OC and perceived job alternatives demonstrated distinct effects on turnover intention. In addition, OC mediated the influence of job satisfaction, perceived job characteristics, and perceived competitiveness of pay on turnover intention. Findings suggest that through cultivating positive beliefs about the job and attitudes toward the employer, managers may counter the influence of external markets on IT workers' turnover intention.
Keywords: information-technology worker turnover; job characteristics; job satisfaction; organization commitment

The DeLone and McLean Model of Information Systems Success: A Ten-Year Update - DeLone, William H; McLean, Ephraim R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
Ten years ago, we presented the DeLone and McLean Information Systems (IS) Success Model as a framework and model for measuring the complex-dependent variable in IS research. In this paper, we discuss many of the important IS success research contributions of the last decade, focusing especially on research efforts that apply, validate, challenge, and propose enhancements to our original model. Based on our evaluation of those contributions, we propose minor refinements to the model and propose an updated DeLone and McLean IS Success Model. We discuss the utility of the updated model for measuring e-commerce system success. Finally, we make a series of recommendations regarding current and future measurement of IS success.
Keywords: evaluation of information systems; impact of information technology; information quality; information systems success; service quality; systems quality; use of information systems; user satisfaction

Collaboration Engineering with ThinkLets to Pursue Sustained Success with Group Support Systems - Briggs, Robert O; De Vreede, Gert-Jan; Nunamaker Jr, Jay F (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
Field research and laboratory experiments suggest that, under certain circumstances, people using group support systems (GSS) can be significantly more productive than people who do not use them. Yet, despite their demonstrated potential, GSS have been slow to diffuse across organizations. Drawing on the Technology Transition Model, the paper argues that the high conceptual load of GSS (i.e., understanding of the intended effect of GSS functionality) encourages organizations to employ expert facilitators to wield the technology on behalf of others. Economic and political factors mitigate against facilitators remaining long term in GSS facilities that focus on supporting nonroutine, ad hoc projects. This especially hampers scaling GSS technology to support distributed collaboration. An alternative and sustainable way for organizations to derive value from GSS lies in an approach called 'collaboration engineering': the development of repeatable collaborative processes that are conducted by practitioners themselves. To enable the development of such processes, this paper proposes the thinkLet concept, a codified packet of facilitation skill that can be applied by practitioners to achieve predictable, repeatable patterns of collaboration, such as divergence or convergence. A thinkLet specifies the facilitator's choices and actions in terms of the GSS tool used, the configuration of this tool, and scripted prompts to accomplish a pattern of collaboration in a group. Using thinkLets as building blocks, facilitators can develop and transfer repeatable collaborative processes to practitioners. Given the limited availability of expert facilitators, collaboration engineering with thinkLets may become a sine qua non for organizations to effectively support virtual work teams.
Keywords: collaboration engineering; collaboration technology; group support systems; technology acceptance model; technology adoption; technology transfer; Technology Transition Model; thinkLets

Toward an Understanding of Satisfaction with the Process and Outcomes of Teamwork - Reinig, Bruce A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
Collaborative technologies such as group support systems (GSS) are often developed to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of teams; however, the satisfaction users have with the processes and outcomes of the teamwork itself often determines the ultimate adoption and sustained use of collaborative technologies. Much of the research on teamwork has focused on meetings in particular and, consequently, satisfaction with the process and outcomes of meetings, referred to collectively as meeting satisfaction. Research on meeting satisfaction in GSS-supported groups has been equivocal, indicating the need for advancement in our theoretical understanding of the construct. To that end, this paper presents a causal model of meeting satisfaction derived from goal setting theory. The model is tested with an empirical study consisting of 15 GSS groups and 11 face-to-face (FTF) groups engaged in the 'lost at sea' task. The results of analysis using structural equation modeling indicate support for the model's integrity across both GSS and FTF groups. Implications for researchers and practitioners are discussed, including how the model can be used to improve future research on the use of collaborative technology to support teamwork.
Keywords: collaborative technology; goal setting theory; group support systems; meeting satisfaction; teams

Modeling and Simulation for Mission Operations Work System Design - Sierhuis, Maarten; Clancey, William J; Chin, Seah; Trimble, Jay P; Sims, Michael H (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
Work system analysis and design is complex and nondeterministic. In this paper we describe Brahms, a multiagent modeling and simulation environment for designing complex interactions in human-machine systems. Brahms was originally conceived as a business process design tool that simulates work practices, including social systems of work. We describe our modeling and simulation method for mission operations work systems design, based on a research case study in which we used Brahms to design mission operations for a proposed discovery mission to the Moon. We then describe the results of an actual method application project--the Brahms Mars Exploration Rover. Space mission operations are similar to operations of traditional organizations; we show that the application of Brahms for space mission operations design is relevant and transferable to other types of business processes in organizations.
Keywords: agent languages; business process modeling; mission operations design; multiagent simulation; work practices

Because Time Matters: Temporal Coordination in Global Virtual Project Teams - Massey, Anne P; Montoya-Weiss, Mitzi M; Yu-Ting, Hung (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
In this study, we explore the nature of team interaction and the role of temporal coordination asynchronously communicating global virtual project teams (GVPT). Drawing on Time, Interaction, and Performance (TIP) theory, we consider how and why virtual team behavior is temporally patterned in complex ways. We report on the results of an experiment consisting of 35 virtual project teams comprised of 175 members residing in the United States and Japan. Through content and cluster analysis, we identify distinct patterns of interaction and examine how these patterns are associated with differential levels of GVPT performance. We also explore the role of temporal coordination mechanisms as a means to synchronize temporal patterns in GVPTs. Our results suggest that successful enactment of temporal coordination mechanisms is associated with higher performance. However, we found that temporal coordination per se is not the driver of performance; rather, it is the influence of coordination on interaction behaviors that affects performance.
Keywords: cluster analysis; computer-mediated communication (CMC); temporal coordination; virtual teams

Team Boundary Issues Across Multiple Global Firms - Espinosa, J Alberto; Cummings, Jonathon N; Wilson, Jeanne M; Pearce, Brandi M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
Numerous methodological issues arise when studying teams that span multiple boundaries. The main purpose of this paper is to raise awareness about the challenges of conducting field research on teams in global firms. Based on field research across multiple firms (software development, product development, financial services, and high technology), we outline five types of boundaries that we encountered in our field research (geographical, functional, temporal, identity, and organizational) and discuss methodological issues in distinguishing the effects of one boundary where multiple boundaries exist. We suggest that it is important to: (1) appropriately measure the boundary of interest to the study, (2) assess and control for other influential boundaries within and across teams, and (3) distinguish the effects of each boundary on each team outcome of interest. Only through careful attention to methodology can we properly assess the effects of team boundaries and appreciate their research and practical implications for designing and using information systems to support collaborative work.
Keywords: cross-functional teams; distributed teams; global teams; interorganizational teams multiple boundaries; organizational forms; research methods; virtual teams; work groups

Generating and Browsing Multiple Taxonomies Over a Document Collection - Spangler, Scott; Kreulen, Jeffrey T; Lessler, Justin (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
We present a novel system and methodology for generating and then browsing multiple taxonomies over a document collection. Taxonomies are generated using a broad set of capabilities, including meta data, key word queries, and automated clustering techniques that serve as a seed taxonomy. The taxonomy editor, eClassifier, provides powerful tools to visualize and edit each taxonomy to make it reflective of the desired theme. Cluster validation tools allow the editor to verify that documents received in the future can be automatically classified into each taxonomy with sufficiently high accuracy. In general, those seeking knowledge from a document collection may have only a vague notion of exactly what they are attempting to understand, and would like to explore related topics and concepts rather than simply being given a set of documents. For this purpose, we have developed MindMap, an interface utilizing multiple taxonomies and the ability to interact with a document collection.
Keywords: data mining; document classification; document clustering techniques; knowledge management; navigation; taxonomy; text mining; visualization

A Methodology for Analyzing Web-Based Qualitative Data - Romano Jr, Nicholas C; Donovan, Christina; Hsinchun, Chen; Nunamaker Jr, Jay F (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
The volume of qualitative data (QD) available via the Internet is growing at an increasing pace and firms are anxious to extract and understand users' thought processes, wants and needs, attitudes, and purchase intentions contained therein. An information systems (IS) methodology to meaningfully analyze this vast resource of QD could provide useful information, knowledge, or wisdom firms could use for a number of purposes including new product development and quality improvement, target marketing, accurate 'user-focused' profiling, and future sales prediction. In this paper, we present an IS methodology for analysis of Internet-based QD consisting of three steps: elicitation, reduction through IS-facilitated selection, coding, and clustering; and visualization to provide at-a-glance understanding. Outcomes include information (relationships), knowledge (patterns), and wisdom (principles) explained through visualizations and drill-down capabilities. First we present the generic methodology and then discuss an example employing it to analyze free-form comments from potential consumers who viewed soon-to-be-released film trailers provided that illustrates how the methodology and tools can provide rich and meaningful affective, cognitive, contextual, and evaluative information, knowledge, and wisdom. The example revealed that qualitative data analysis (QDA) accurately reflected film popularity. A finding is that QDA also provided a predictive measure of relative magnitude of film popularity between the most popular film and the least popular one, based on actual first week box office sales. The methodology and tools used in this preliminary study illustrate that value can be derived from analysis of Internet-based QD and suggest that further research in this area is warranted.
Keywords: attitudes and purchase intentions; clustering; coding; elicitation; future sales predictions; information systems; qualitative data analysis (QDA) methodology; reduction; selection; visualization

Relating Collaborative Technology Use to Teamwork Quality and Performance: An Empirical Analysis - Easley, Robert F; Devaraj, Sarv; Crant, J Michael (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
Although team-based work systems are pervasive in the workplace, the use of collaborative systems designed to facilitate and support ongoing teamwork is a relatively recent development. An understanding of how teams embrace and use such collaborative systems--and the relationship of that usage to teamwork quality and team performance--is critical for organizational success. We present a theoretical model in which usage of a collaborative system intervenes between teamwork quality and team performance for tasks that are supported by the system. We empirically validate the model in a setting where established teams voluntarily used a collaborative system over a four-month period to perform tasks with measurable outcomes. Our principal finding is that collaborative system use intervenes between teamwork quality and performance for tasks supported by the system but not for unsupported tasks.
Keywords: collaboration technology; collaborative systems; computer self-efficacy; group support systems (GSS); groupware; team performance; teamwork

Organizing Visions for Information Technology and the Information Systems Executive Response - Ramiller, Neil C; Swanson, E Burton (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
Making sense of new information technology (IT) and the many buzzwords associated with it is by no means an easy task for executives. Yet doing so is crucial to making good innovation decisions. This paper examines how information systems (IS) executives respond to what has been termed organizing visions for IT, grand ideas for applying IT, the presence of which is typically announced by much "buzz" and hyperbole. Developed and promulgated in the wider interorganizational community, organizing visions play a central role in driving the innovation adoption and diffusion process. Familiar and recent examples include electronic commerce, data warehousing, and enterprise systems. A key aspect of an organizing vision is that it has a career. That is, even as it helps shape how IS managers think about the future of application and practice in their field, the organizing vision undertakes its own struggle to achieve ascendancy in the community. The present research explores this struggle, specifically probing how IS executives respond to visions that are in different career stages. Employing field interviews and a survey, the study identifies four dimensions of executive response focusing on a vision's interpretability, plausibility, importance, and discontinuity. Taking a comparative approach, the study offers several grounded conjectures concerning the career dynamics of organizing visions. For the IS executive, the findings help point the way to a more proactive, systematic, and critical stance toward innovations that can place the executive in a better position to make informed adoption decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]Copyright of Journal of Management Information Systems is the property of M.E. Sharpe Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Keywords: information systems management; information technology innovation; innovation diffusion; institutional theory; sense making

Extending Critical Success Factors Methodology to Facilitate Broadly Participative Information Systems Planning - Peffers, Ken; Gengler, Charles E; Tuunanen, Tuure (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
We extend critical success factors (CSF) methodology to facilitate participation by many people within and around the organization for information systems (IS) planning. The resulting new methodology, called "critical success chains" (CSC), extends CSF to explicitly model the relationships between IS attributes, CSF, and organizational goals. Its use is expected to help managers to (1) consider a wider range of development ideas, (2) better balance important strategic, tactical, and operational systems in the development portfolio, (3) consider the full range of options to accomplish desired objectives, and (4) better optimize the allocation of resources for maintenance and small systems. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]Copyright of Journal of Management Information Systems is the property of M.E. Sharpe Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Keywords: critical success chains; critical success factors (CSF); information systems development portfolio; information systems planning; information systems project selection; information systems strategic planning; laddering; personal construct theory; strategic grid

Nearing the Threshold: An Economics Approach to Pressure on Information Systems Professionals to Separate from Their Employer - Josefek, Jr Robert A; Kauffman, Robert J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
Organizational approaches to managing information systems (IS) professionals have been making headlines as technology-intensive businesses search for ways to cope with an ever-changing economic landscape. Consequently, understanding and predicting employee quitting or separation behavior is crucial. We incorporate human capital theory from economics to form an alternative theoretical perspective for understanding IS professionals' separation and retention. This shift allows us to focus on precursors to observed separation, rather than attitudinal precursors of intentions. We introduce three new constructs: pressure to separate, retention frontiers, and separation thresholds. These constructs provide a basis for identifying when an employee is close to leaving the firm and for a new approach to analyze the potential effectiveness of action taken by a firm to change separation behavior: pre-implementation retention intervention assessment (PRI-assessment). We illustrate the application of the new approach using data on the observed separation behavior of 661 IS professionals at a large multidivision firm. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]Copyright of Journal of Management Information Systems is the property of M.E. Sharpe Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Keywords: binomial logit model; economic analysis; information systems professionals; information technology human capital; personnel separation; workforce retention

Investigating Determinants of Software Developers' Intentions to Follow Methodologies - Hardgrave, Bill C; Davis, Fred D; Riemenschneider, Cynthia K (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
Seeking to improve software development, many organizations attempt to deploy formalized methodologies. This typically entails substantial behavioral change by software developers away from previous informal practices toward conformance with the methodology. Developers' resistance to such change often results in failure to fully deploy and realize the benefits of the methodology. The present research draws upon theories of intention formation and innovation diffusion to advance knowledge about why developers accept or resist following methodologies. Results from a field study within a large organization indicate that developers' intentions are directly influenced by their perceptions of usefulness, social pressure, compatibility, and organizational mandate. This pattern of intention determinants is quite different from that typically observed in studies of information technology tool adoption, revealing several key differences between the domains of tool versus methodology adoption. Specifically, although organizational mandate had a significant effect on intentions, the strength of its direct influence was the lowest among the four significant constructs, and usefulness, compatibility, and social pressure all influenced intentions directly, above and beyond the effects of organizational mandate. The findings suggest, contrary to popular belief, that an organizational mandate is not sufficient to guarantee use of the methodology in a sustained manner. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]Copyright of Journal of Management Information Systems is the property of M.E. Sharpe Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Keywords: diffusion of innovations; innovation adoption; software development methodologies; technology acceptance model

Software Piracy in the Workplace: A Model and Empirical Test - Peace, A Graham; Galletta, Dennis F; Thong, James Y L (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
Theft of software and other intellectual property has become one of the most visible problems in computing today. This paper details the development and empirical validation of a model of software piracy by individuals in the workplace. The model was developed from the results of prior research into software piracy, and the reference disciplines of the theory of planned behavior, expected utility theory, and deterrence theory. A survey of 201 respondents was used to test the model. The results indicate that individual attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control are significant precursors to the intention to illegally copy software. In addition, punishment severity, punishment certainty, and software cost have direct effects on the individual's attitude toward software piracy, whereas punishment certainty has a significant effect on perceived behavioral control. Consequently, strategies to reduce software piracy should focus on these factors. The results add to a growing stream of information systems research into illegal software copying behavior and have significant implications for organizations and industry groups aiming to reduce software piracy. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]Copyright of Journal of Management Information Systems is the property of M.E. Sharpe Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Keywords: computer ethics; deterrence theory; expected utility theory; software piracy; theory of planned behavior

Knowledge Management Enablers, Processes, and Organizational Performance: An Integrative View and Empirical Examination - Heeseok, Lee; Byounggu, Choi (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
Knowledge is recognized as an important weapon for sustaining competitive advantage and many companies are beginning to manage organizational knowledge. Researchers have investigated knowledge management factors such as enablers, processes, and performance. However, most current empirical research has explored the relationships between these factors in isolation. To fill this gap, this paper develops a research model that interconnects knowledge management factors. The model includes seven enablers: collaboration, trust, learning, centralization, formalization, T-shaped skills, and information technology support. The emphasis is on knowledge creation processes such as socialization, externalization, combination, and internalization. To establish credibility between knowledge creation and performance, organizational creativity is incorporated into the model. Surveys collected from 58 firms were analyzed to test the model. The results confirmed the impact of trust on knowledge creation. The information technology support had a positive impact on knowledge combination only. Organizational creativity was found to be critical for improving performance; neglecting ideas can undermine a business. The results may be used as a stepping stone for further empirical research and can help formulate robust strategies that involve trade-offs between knowledge management enablers. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]Copyright of Journal of Management Information Systems is the property of M.E. Sharpe Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Keywords: knowledge-creating processes; knowledge management; knowledge management enablers; organizational creativity; organizational performance

Product-Based Workflow Design - Reijers, Hajo A; Limam, Selma; Van Der Aalst, Wil M P (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
In manufacturing, the interaction between the design of a product and the process to manufacture this product is studied in detail. Consider, for example, material requirements planning (MRP) as part of current enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems, which is mainly driven by the bill of material (BOM). For information-intensive products such as insurances, and many other services, the workflow process typically evolves or is redesigned without careful consideration of the structure and characteristics of the product. In this paper, we present a method named product-based workflow design (PBWD). PBWD takes the product specification and three design criteria as a starting point, after which formal models and techniques are used to derive a favorable new design of the workflow process. The ExSpect tool is used to support PBWD. Finally, using a real case study, we demonstrate that a full evaluation of the search space for a workflow design may be feasible depending on the chosen design criteria and the specific nature of the product specifications. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]Copyright of Journal of Management Information Systems is the property of M.E. Sharpe Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Keywords: business process redesign; formal methods; process design; workflows; workflow systems

Exploring the Core Concepts of Media Richness Theory: The Impact of Cue Multiplicity and Feedback Immediacy on Decision Quality - Kahai, Surinder S; Cooper, Randolph B (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
Employing media richness theory, a model is developed to open the black box surrounding the impact of computer-mediated communication systems on decision quality. The effects on decision quality of two important communication system factors, cue multiplicity and feedback immediacy, are examined in light of three important mediating constructs: social perceptions, message clarity, and ability to evaluate others. A laboratory experiment examining two tasks and employing face-to-face, electronic meeting, electronic conferencing, and electronic mail communication systems is used to assess the model's validity. Results provide consistent support for the research model as well as media richness theory. Richer media facilitate social perceptions (total socio-emotional communication and positive socio-emotional climate) and perceived ability to evaluate others' deception and expertise. Leaner media (electronic mail and electronic conferencing) facilitate communication clarity when participants have less task-relevant knowledge. The impacts of these mediating constructs on decision quality were found to depend on the levels of participant expertise and deception. In general, it was found that richer media can have significantly positive impacts on decision quality when participants' task-relevant knowledge is high. Moreover, effects of participant deception can be mitigated by employing richer media. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]Copyright of Journal of Management Information Systems is the property of M.E. Sharpe Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Keywords: computer-mediated communication (CMC); feedback immediacy; group performance; group processes; media richness theory; nonverbal cues

Identification of Comment Authorship in Anonymous Group Support Systems - Hayne, Stephen C; Pollard, Carol E; Rice, Ronald E (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
This study examines whether technically "anonymous" comments entered by participants during group support system (GSS) brainstorming sessions are, in fact, unidentifiable. Hypotheses are developed and tested about the influences of comment length, comment evaluative tone, duration of group membership, and prior communication among group members on the accuracy of attributions they made about the identity of the authors of these technically anonymous comments. Data on prior communication and group history about each of the 32 small groups was collected before participants began using a GSS for brainstorming. Immediately after the session, each member was asked to attribute authorship to a sample of the session's anonymous comments (comment authorship was known to the researchers). The study's participants made attributions that were significantly more accurate than chance guessing. Factors that had a positive influence on attribution accuracy include evaluative tone of comments (especially humorous comments) and amount of prior communication received from other group members. Vividness of comment tone and comment length was not significantly correlated with attribution accuracy. Although the attributions of anonymous comments were more accurate than expected by chance, most of the attributions were incorrect. Implications and consequences of both accurate and inaccurate attribution are discussed along with suggestions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]Copyright of Journal of Management Information Systems is the property of M.E. Sharpe Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Keywords: anonymity; computer-mediated communication (CMC); group support systems; social networks

Justifying Contingent Information Technology Investments: Balancing the Need for Speed of Action with Certainty Before Action - Clemons, Eric K; Bin, G U (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
Executives need to master different mechanisms for analyzing their firms' investment opportunities in uncertain, difficult times. Rapidly changing business conditions require firms to move quickly, with total commitment and the rapid deployment of capital, resources, and management attention, often in several directions at the same time. However, high levels of strategic uncertainty and environmental risk, combined with limits on available funding, require firms to limit their commitment. In brief, we require high levels of strategic commitment to numerous projects, while simultaneously preserving our flexibility and withholding commitment. Whereas achieving both is clearly impossible, techniques exist that enable executives (1) to identify and to delimit their range of investment alternatives that must be considered, and to do so rapidly and reliably, (2) to divide investments into discrete stages that can be implemented sequentially, (3) to determine which chunks can safely and profitably be developed as strategic options, with value that can be captured when subsequent stage investments are made later; and (4) to quantify and to estimate the value of these strategic options with a significant degree of accuracy, so that selections can be made from a portfolio of investment alternatives. This paper also avoids restrictions of common option valuation models by providing a technique that is general enough to be used when the data required by common models are not available or the assumptions are not satisfied.
Keywords: information technology investment; option valuation; strategic investments; strategic options

What Do You Know?: Rational Expectations in Information Technology Adoption and Investment - Au, Yoris A; Kauffman, Robert J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 2003)
This study examines the potential applications of the rational expectations hypothesis (REH) and adaptive learning theory in IT investment and adoption decision-making. Despite the fact that rationality is commonly assumed in economic analyses, the REH's assumptions make it a unique theory and allow us to offer new perspectives on IS/IT adoption and investment decision-making. Our application of these theoretical perspectives to the IT adoption context---the first time in the IS literature to our knowledge that REH has been used to examine the mechanism for business value expectations formation---will allow us to treat the investment and adoption issues using a perspective that is based on a longer time horizon. Such settings require managers, as economic agents, to form a set of expectations about the values of various variables related to the business value of IT. Rational expectations and adaptive learning assume that decision-makers are able to utilize all available decision-relevant information efficiently and can learn the true value of a prospective investment over time. We present a number of propositions that characterize this perspective, and discuss some illustrative examples that demonstrate the efficacy of the theoretical perspective that we present to characterize the business value expectations formation process in IT adoption.
Keywords: adaptive learning; business value; herd behavior; informational cascades; information technology investment; rational expectations hypothesis; technology adoption