Management Information Systems-Beyond the Current Paradigm - Zwass, Vladimir (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1984)
The Journal of Management Information Systems will provide an integrated view of the entire discipline to both researchers and practitioners and will help communicate research and practical advances. In order to define the focal points of the new journal, the developmental trends in MIS as a field of practice and as an academic discipline are analyzed. Support of less structured decisions under the condition of organizational dynamics is found to be of particular importance. At the same time, the environment of information delivery will be determined by cooperative computing, with the end users gaining in a large measure direct access to information. The role of MIS as a crucial component in the evolving knowledge society is stressed. In particular, flexibility of information systems is a factor of social productivity at large.
Keywords: evolution of management information systems; MIS as discipline; individualized decision support; MIS publications

Eliciting Decision-Makers' Information Requirements: Application of the Rep Test Methodology - Grudnitski, Gary (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1984)
Many information systems fail to achieve their promised potential because of the inability of the analyst to design a system attuned to the needs of the decision-maker. To remedy this situation, it is essential to develop new methodologies that facilitate the process of defining distinct decision parameters, understandable by the decision-maker, the analyst, and others in the organization. The primary purpose of this paper is to present and apply the Rep Test, a methodology for eliciting the information used, or desired to be used, by decision-makers. The information elicited and the salient characteristics decision-makers attach to this information are further analyzed and interpreted by examining the results of information sources scaled on information attributes.
Keywords: user requirements; systems analysis methodologies; decision support; measurement of psychological space; concept-formation tests

Capturing More Meaning in Databases - Maier, David (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1984)
Users must understand the meaning of a database before they can intelligently interpret the data in it. We explore the problem of making databases self-descriptive. We first examine the levels of semantics of data by analogy to the area of programming languages. Next, we consider several semantic data models, which are formal languages for conceptual data description, and how a semantic description can be linked to the objects in a database. We discuss the advantages of making a semantic description part of a database itself and the types of application programs that would use that description. In particular, we focus on PIQUE, a high-level relational query language that uses such semantic information.
Keywords: database systems; semantic data models; relational query language

Designing Financial Information Systems for Auditability - Lockman, Abe; Minsky, Naftaly (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1984)
The auditing of results produced by computer-based Financial Information Systems requires that auditors be able to evaluate the internal controls of such systems. Because of the integrated nature of the components in current large systems, this has proven to be a quite formidable task. We propose the simplification of such evaluations through the incorporation, during the initial design of the system, of the sorts of basic control disciplines which are used in manual systems. Our approach involves the use of a powerful Authorization Mechanism control environment (based on computer science techniques for authorization and protection) to specify and enforce such control disciplines in a manner which is easily verifiable during the audit process.
Keywords: system controls; auditing; computer system security; authorization

A Database Architecture for Supporting Business Transactions - Jarke, Matthias; Shalev, Jacob (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1984)
The central hypothesis of this paper is that database design and systems design in general can be simplified considerably by tailoring the design methods to a suitable range of applications. Domain-specific knowledge can be incorporated into a specialized database architecture that leaves the designer only with the task of specifying the application-specific parts. Based on an analysis of business constraints, we propose such an architecture for the domain of business transaction processing. The architecture offers several data and transaction management services, special-purpose subdatabases, and design-checking rules to be used by the application designer. Two services, input management and audit and control services, are described in more detail.
Keywords: transaction processing; semantic database modeling; database architecture; knowledge-based systems design

Problems in Implementing and Operating a Manufacturing Resource Planning Information System - Cox, James F; Clark, Steven J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1984)
Manufacturing information systems are among the most complex to design, implement, and maintain. Few systems are completely successful. This paper provides the framework of one of the most popular manufacturing information systems, a manufacturing resource planning system, discusses the potential benefits of a successful system, and describes the problems associated with operating the system. Problems are classified as being management, technical, and behavioral. Recommendations are provided for each type of problem based on an extensive review of the literature. A discussion is provided of current trends in the manufacturing information system field.
Keywords: manufacturing resource planning; master scheduling; capacity planning; inventory planning; material requirements planning

Writing Simple Program Generators: A Case Study in Building Productivity Tools - Norman, Morton; Muriel, Amador (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1984)
The development of a program generator for data acquisition and management on a microcomputer is described in a case study. The generator has been used to achieve major gains in productivity of both experienced programmers and naive users. Specific rules and techniques used in developing the program generator are presented, together with design tradeoffs. By implication, these methods are suitable for developing other program generators for a wide variety of applications. The claim is made that writing program generators which are modest in scope and generality is a straightforward and teachable task, rather than an exotic technique. Consequently, software groups are urged to consider developing such productivity tools.
Keywords: program generators; programming productivity tools

Organization Size and Information System Use: An Empirical Study - Gremillion, Lee L (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1984)
Organization size has often been viewed as a predictor of the adoption of administrative innovations, including computerization or information system use. Increasing size is said either to necessitate IS use (to solve communications and integration problems which arise from increasing size) or at least to facilitate such use (by providing greater opportunity to achieve benefits through computerization). To investigate this relationship, IS use (as measured by expenditures for computing) as a function of various measures of organization size is studied for sixty-six units of the National Forest System. The results are not in accordance with theory or previously reported studies--little significant relationship is found between size and IS use. Possible explanations of these results include differing levels of IS advocacy among individuals on the staffs of the units studied.
Keywords: MIS and organization size; computerization; administrative innovation

Information System Semantics (A Logic-Based Approach) - Lee, Ronald M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1984)
Efficiency considerations aside, an information system may be regarded as a set of logical axioms about the organization and its environment. To what extent are these axioms shared between applications? Between organizations? Within an industry? A knowledge engineering approach to systems analysis is suggested whereby (prototype) systems are built by adding refinements to a set of background axioms representing knowledge about business, administrative functions, etc. New applications may thus build on the knowledge from previous applications, rather than starting from scratch. The emerging technology of logic programming provides a suitable implementation language for this approach. However, logic programming by itself is not enough; extendibility and probability of axioms require a consistent semantic basis across applications. Semantic issues are discussed, and a specific ontology is proposed.
Keywords: knowledge-based systems; MIS semantics; logic programming; logic databases

Information Systems Planning and Development: Strategic Postures and Methodologies - Kottemann, Jeffrey E; Konsynski, Benn R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1984)
Two complementary issues emerge in development and implementation of a comprehensive IS plan--the determination of the IS functions's strategic posture and the choice of appropriate IS planning and development methodologies. Frameworks for addressing both issues are presented. IS strategic postures vary along several dimensions, including the level and scope of the system view as well as the degree of participation of the IS function in overall organizational planning. Current IS planning methodologies differ in: components of the organization used as planning pivots, assumptions indicating perceived stability of components, and IS objectives reflected in the methodology. Those assumptions and objectives implicit in a methodology dictate their suitability for given strategic postures. A contingency framework is used in examining selected IS planning and development methodologies.
Keywords: strategic planning; information systems planning; information systems integration; information systems for competitive advantage

Fighting Information Pollution with Decision Support Systems - Orman, Levent V (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1984)
Information pollution is characterized as a major problem in modern organizations and in society at large. Decision support systems are proposed as the primary tool to combat information pollution. An ideal decision support system is characterized; its potential is demonstrated through examples; and a design architecture to achieve its maximum potential is proposed.
Keywords: decision support systems; information pollution; design architecture

DSS Mechanisms for Judgemental Flexibility: An Exploratory Survey - Farwell, David C (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1984)
The building of a decision support system (DSS) calls for a balance to be struck between the computer's calculation and logic capabilities and the freewheeling judgment of its human operator. This paper reports on a survey which was conducted to determine how DSS builders create this balance. The survey results confirm definition of five mechanisms employed by DSS builders in the construction of fifteen different DSS: process dependence, total passthrough, model functional reversal, model judgmental, and trial and error. The paper documents these mechanisms and reports on the survey.
Keywords: decision support systems; system flexibility; user-system interface

Advances in Information System Design - Konsynski, Benn R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1984)
Over the past several decades, generations of development tools have evolved to improve the productivity of system development and increase the impact of information systems on improvement of management practice. The solution techniques include the continuum from development guidelines to comprehensive tool environments. Methods and procedures have been considered that range from end-user development support to large-scale systems automation approaches for support of the entire systems development process. In this paper definition techniques, software engineering, and end-user development approaches are discussed. Data Dictionaries, value-added dictionaries and directories, requirements database systems, and emerging "system encyclopedias" are discussed as keys to many of the evolving system development environments. The Fourth Generation approaches and the Information Center concept are presented as frameworks for developing an end-user computing capability.
Keywords: development of information systems; automated tools for system development; data dictionaries/directories; fourth generation languages

On the Interactive Use of Databases: Query Languages - Vassiliou, Yannis (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1984)
Database query languages constitute a subset of Fourth Generation Languages in that they primarily focus on the querying and simple modification aspects of data management. Query languages appear to benefit from recent developments in Computer Graphics, Artificial Intelligence, and Applied User Psychology. These developments, coupled with widespread use of computers by an expanding population of novice users, have resulted in the emergence of query languages which are easy to use and offer much power. The paper reviews the major query language types and examines motivations and trends in their design.
Keywords: query languages; fourth generation languages; systems development

Productivity in the Forth Generation: Six Case Studies - Green, Jesse (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1984)
A severalfold increase in productivity is being accomplished today by a combination of various techniques called summarily "fourth generation" methods. An investigation of six success stories, based on a series of interviews, is presented, and reasons for success are analyzed.
Keywords: system development by end-users; fourth generation languages; practice of systems development

PLEXSYS-84: An Integrated Development Environment for Informational Systems - Konsynski, Benn R; Kottemann, Jeffrey E; Nunamaker Jr, Jay F; Stott, Jack W (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1984)
Integrated Development Environments (IDES) are presented as a unified set of information system development concepts, techniques, and computer-aided tools. An IDE consists of both a complete and unified development methodology and set of computer aids that support use of the methodology. The need for IDES and their characteristics are reviewed. The PLEXSYS-84 IDE is reviewed in relation to these needs and characteristics. Techniques and tools which extend the initial work are placed within the original PLEXSYS-84 framework and are described in some detail.
Keywords: automation of system development; tools for system development; integrated development environments; system development methodologies

Managing the Introduction of Information Systems Technology in Strategically Dependent Companies - Cash Jr, James I; McLeod, Poppy L (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
The primary focus of computer and communication technology application in some companies has shifted from efficiency/process improvement to strategic/competitive uses. Companies that have become strategically dependent on computer and communications technology have found that the requisite processes of technology forecasting, tracking, research and development, introduction, and management of new technology are unwieldy and almost impossible to operationalize, given traditional administrative and organizational approaches. This paper proposes that a contemporary organization, strategically dependent on computer and communications technology, should: (1) establish an organizational unit with specific responsibility for these processes, and (2) use a contingency framework for the design of ongoing administrative infrastructure to effectively manage new technology. The organizational unit is called the Emerging Technology group, and an example description from Air Products and Chemicals, Inc. is provided. The contingency framework proposed is based on the phases model developed by McKenney and McFarlan.
Keywords: strategic dependence on MIS; information systems technology; information technology assimilation

Designing a Generalized Multiple Criteria Decision Support System - Jelassi, M Tawfik; Jarke, Matthias; Stohr, Edward A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
Decision support systems are of many kinds, depending on the models and techniques employed in them. Multiple criteria decision-making techniques constitute an important class of DSS with unique software requirements. This paper stresses the importance of interactive MCDM methods since these facilitate learning through all stages of the decision-making process. We first describe some features of Multiple Criteria Decision Support Systems (MCDSSs) that distinguish them from classical DSSS. We then outline a software architecture for a MCDSS which has three basic components: a Dialog Manager, an MCDM Model Manager, and a Data Manager. We describe the interactions that occur between these three software components in an integrated MCDSS and outline a design for the Data Manager which is based on a concept of levels of data abstraction.
Keywords: decision support systems; relational databases; data abstraction; multicriteria decision-making; database architecture

An Array Algebra for Database Applications - Orman, Levent V (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
Array Algebra provides a complete and algebraic programming environment for database application systems where large quantities of highly structured data are involved. Some procedure is suppressed by utilizing an algebra based on the theory of generalized arrays to express the functional relationships among the data items, and more specifically between the inputs and the outputs of an application system.
Keywords: database languages; nonprocedural programming; query languages; array theory; recursive data structures

Marketing Information Systems: Their Current Status in Fortune 1000 Companies - McLeod Jr, Raymond; Rogers, John C (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
A mail survey of Fortune 1000 firms reveals considerable variation in the designs of their marketing information systems, yet a uniformly high level of sophistication in regards to use of interactive systems and decision modeling. Many of the data-gathering and storage components of these systems are not computerized. The best decision support is at the upper and middle management level for planning and controlling the firm's product offering. This top-level support indicates that the user possibly has a greater influence on system implementation than does problem structure.
Keywords: marketing information systems; data sources; database; management level; management function; marketing mix

An Assessment of Productivity and Operations Control as Motives for Office Automation - Paddock, Charles E (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
Gains in productivity and improved internal control of data and operations by data processing and word processing departments are often mentioned as motives for pursuing office automation. A recent survey of data processing and word processing managers indicates that productivity improvement is indeed a motivating factor, but that operations control may not be particularly important. This implies that justification of office automation based on the need to enhance data processing and word processing control may be an insufficient reason for incurring the time and expense necessary to automate. Therefore, if productivity problems do not exist, operations control should be closely examined before citing it as a major reason for implementing office information systems.
Keywords: office automation; office information systems; productivity; operations control; motivation

A Developmental Model of the Database Administration Function - Kahn, Beverly K; Garceau, Linda R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
This proposal for a new model of database administration development provides organizations with a framework for planning and controlling the growth of the database administration function and rectifies the shortcomings of previous models. These other models have proven to be neither consistent nor concise. Additionally, they have lacked consensus on the number of stages and on their constituent activities. To develop a new model, a field study was conducted. Interviews and a questionnaire were used to identify tasks which were important to the DBA in the performance of the function. Results were analyzed using the techniques of factor and cluster analysis and then related to indicators of functional development. Three stages in the development of the database administration function were identified: initiation, transition, and stability.
Keywords: database administration; database management systems; shared and integrated data; data administration

Justifying Decision Support and Office Automation Systems - Gremillion, Lee L; Pyburn, Philip J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
Numerous articles suggest that DSS and office automation can provide substantial improvement in managerial and professional productivity. In spite of the intuitive appeal of these arguments, however, many firms find that the uncertainty of a solid, measurable payoff makes it hard to justify major investments. As a result, some managers have given up trying to evaluate the benefits of these systems, and they now make the investment decision "on faith"—losing in the process any form of real accountability. By evaluating DSS and OA development projects in the aggregate, however, some of these justification problems can be minimized. While we may not be able to identify the specific benefits generated by an individual system, we can often measure the overall productivity improvements attributable to the portfolio of systems. At the same time, we can hold managers accountable for achieving a return that justifies the total investment.
Keywords: decision support systems; office automation; cost-benefit analysis; portfolio approach; project management

Conceptual Perspectives on Key Factors in DSS Development: A Systems Approach - Ahn, Taesik; Grudnitski, Gary (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
It is a mistake to categorize decision support systems (DSS) as just another recent variant of traditional computer-based information systems. While traditional computer-based information systems are oriented toward performing structured processing tasks and producing regular reports, DSS have the purpose of supporting nonroutine activities and evolving in response to user learning. Thus a different subset of factors should be considered when developing a decision support system. This paper proposes and defines a conceptual model of DSS development whose origins are based on an open systems approach and whose components capture technical, behavioral, and organizational aspects of the development process.
Keywords: decision support systems; systems development; system approach; user-system interface; learning-oriented systems; redistribution of power; feedback

Decision Support Systems and the Traditional Computer Information System Function: An Examination of Relationships during DSS Application Development - Hogue, Jack T (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
Decision support systems differ in a variety of ways from other forms of computer-based information systems. The specific relationship of a decision support system to the formal information system function with regard to application development has been a topic of speculation. This article reports on such relationships as found from an investigation of eighteen decision support systems.
Keywords: decision support systems; system development methodologies; system development personnel

Classifying An Organization to Identify Its Information Requirements: A Comprehensive Framework - Yadav, Surya B (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
This paper presents a methodological framework for classifying organizations in order to identify their information requirements. The framework is in the form of guidelines to study and characterize an organization, starting from a broad vantage point and continuing on to a detailed analysis of specific managerial actions. The methodology was applied to study a city government and a medium-sized bank, with encouraging results.
Keywords: information in organizations; organization design; system analysis; analysis methodologies; information requirements

A Dynamic Systems Development Life-Cycle Approach: A Project Management Information System - Snyder, Charles A; Cox, James F (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
Numerous firms experience rapid changes in information needs in today's dynamic business environments. Many of the traditional systems development life-cycle (SDLC) approaches to systems design do not provide for incorporating changes to proposed designs during development of the information system. The sequential approach taken with these traditional life-cycle methodologies can lead to the failure of the information system in a volatile situation. This paper examines past SDLC approaches, proposes an approach which incorporates flexibility into the design process and provides an example illustrating the application of the proposed methodology.
Keywords: information systems analysis; MIS design; dynamic organizational environment; MIS project; system development life cycle

Properties and MIS Applications of Combinatorial Distribution Functions - Papayanopoulos, Lee (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
We examine a versatile mathematical device which systematically summarizes combinations of linear functions of integer variables. The deterministic frequency function, like its relative the probability distribution, may be manipulated numerically or analytically to serve different purposes. Here we review some of its properties which make it suitable for solving small combinatorial problems of a general nature as may arise in MIS and other applications.
Keywords: MIS modeling; combinatorial methods; quantitative analysis; knapsack problem

User Leadership in the Systems Development Life Cycle: A Contingency Model - Franz, Charles R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
The development of an information system requires four main activities that must be carried out during the systems development life cycle (SDLC): feasibility study/analysis, design, technical construction, and implementation. This paper examines the conditions under which information systems (IS) specialists and users should assume responsibility and decision-making authority during the SDLC. A contingency model is presented that recommends the type of responsibility and authority roles that users should assume during the SDLC to minimize the risk and uncertainty inherent in developing computer-based systems. The contingency model developed in this paper builds upon the situational characteristics of information system complexity, is department experience, and user past experience in system development. According to the model, certain system factors and systems development experiences require that the user become involved by exercising heavy responsibility and authority roles, while other situational factors suggest light user leadership. The concept of SDLC leadership as responsibility and authority is developed and its meaning for users during each state of the SDLC is discussed.
Keywords: systems development life cycle; contingency models; user participation in systems development; MIS management

The Effect of User-Developed DDS Applications of Forecasting Decision-Making Performance in an Experimental Setting - Kasper, George M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
A primary assumption of decision support systems (DSS) is that their use will result in more effective decision making. Using a repeated measures design, we conducted an experimental gaming study to investigate the effect of user-developed DSS applications on the decision maker's ability to forecast his or her actual gaming results. The findings of this study support the proposition that user-developed DSS models lead to more effective decision making. Subjects in the DSS modeling group made significantly better forecasts of their firm's performance than did those in the nonmodeling group.
Keywords: decision support systems; decision aids

A Linear Representation for Model Management in a DDS - Klein, Gary; Konsynski, Benn; Beck, Philip O (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
Models are a key component in most decision making processes. Systems developed to effectively support the decision making process must accommodate multiple, alternative models that support alternative views of the decision making environment. An effective model management environment must facilitate the definition and maintenance of models and deal with the complex issue of selection from among the collection of alternative, feasible models. A linear programming approach to model selection is presented. The LP formulation works on historical information regarding model usage. A stepwise heuristic for model selection using the linear program is presented and extensions to the model are introduced.
Keywords: decision support systems; model management systems; linear programming

Scope/Complexity: A Framework for the Classification and Analysis of Information-Decision Systems - Belardo, Salvatore; Pazer, Harold L (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
A new framework for the clarification and analysis of information-decision systems is presented. It is based upon two key dimensions, Scope and Complexity, each of which can be adequately described in terms of two principal components. For Scope, these are the organizational descriptors of breadth and depth, while for Complexity they are the problem descriptors of uncertainty and variety. This framework is shown to be a logical extension and synthesis of previously presented frameworks. The Scope/Complexity framework is sufficiently flexible to accommodate a variety of information system perspectives and to enable the analyst and researcher to graphically and algebraically portray the existing system and to evaluate various strategies for process improvement. An example of the application of the Scope/Complexity construct in the context of a vehicle scheduling decision support system is presented. In the final section, the Scope/Complexity framework is employed to identify a series of research hypotheses which directly parallel the problems of analysis and design encountered by the practitioner.
Keywords: scope/ complexity classification; decision support systems

The Undergraduate MIS Course in A.A.C.S.B. Schools - McLeod Jr, Raymond (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
A mail survey was conducted of 145 A.A.C.S.B. schools. Responses were received from 113 schools with undergraduate programs indicating that 62 offer an MIS core course. Information provided by the professors sheds light on the prerequisites, topics, experiential approaches, perceived success factors, and anticipated trends. At present the course has a systems analysis emphasis. In the future the material will be more related to small-scale computers and will increasingly be integrated into the curricula of the business disciplines.
Keywords: undergraduate MIS core course; MIS education

The Impact of Electronic Information Carriers on the United States Postal Service: An Exploratory Survey - Zaki, Ahmed S (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
This study is an attempt to examine the efforts of a governmental agency, namely, the United States Postal Service, to compete in the high technology field against the private sector. The study seeks to highlight the impact of technological, political, legal, and economic problems. A hoped-for by-product is producing some lessons for guidance in similar future ventures. The paper surveys the rapidly advancing and highly competitive electronic mail market and the use of telecommunication networks in the leading companies in the private sector. The Postal Service approach to competition in the market and its managerial policy for dealing with this technological evolution in information delivery are also examined. Recommendations are made based on the capabilities, competitive position, and cost-demand structure of the U.S. Postal Service.
Keywords: electronic mail; satellite communications; competitive strategy

Managing the Risks Associated with End-User Computing - Alavi, Maryan; Weiss, Ira R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
This article identifies the risks of EUC associated with different stages of the end-user applications life cycle. End-User Computing (EUC) is a rapidly growing phenomenon in organizations. EUC will soon be a major segment of information systems in most large organizations. There is a growing concern about the potential organizational risks of EUC activities.Generic controls are then identified that address each of the risks enumerated in the article. Controls are introduced in a manner that allows EUC management to select those most appropriate to their EUC environment.
Keywords: human information processing; system development; MIS controls

Job Satisfaction and Information Systems Research - Cheney, Paul H; Scarpello, Vida (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
Several assumptions within the job satisfaction domain have recently been subjected to empirical examinations. The studies reviewed in this paper appear to have particular relevance to MIS researchers using job satisfaction as either a dependent or an independent variable in their research. A distinction between periodic assessment of job satisfaction of MIS staffs and the measurement of changes in user job satisfaction due to a new system introduction is suggested. This distinction has relevance for choices of research design as well as the possible choice of measurement instruments.
Keywords: measuring job satisfaction; MIS staff turnover; MIS research design

Effect of Organizational Maturity on End-Users' Satisfaction with Information Systems - Mahmood, M Adam; Becker, Jack D (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
A field study of information systems (IS) end-users and DP/MIS managers was used to re-examine the appropriateness of Nolan's stage hypothesis and to investigate the effect of organizational maturity on end-users' satisfaction with information systems. The study was motivated by the recent interest in user satisfaction as a surrogate measure of IS organizations' successful performance. The research found a significant relationship between the user satisfaction variables and the Nolan benchmark maturity variables. While the individual maturity variables were found to be weak predictors of the user satisfaction variables, when both sets of variables were grouped accordingly, canonical analysis revealed a significant predictive relationship between the Nolan maturity variables and the level of user satisfaction. Further research based on the findings of the study is suggested as a means of improving the degree of relationship between maturity criteria and users' satisfaction variables.
Keywords: MIS maturity; user satisfaction; MIS stage model

Research on MIS Planning: Some Guidelines from Strategic Planning Research - Venkatraman, N (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
Recognizing that MIS planning is fast emerging as an important topic for both practitioners and researchers, this paper develops key guidelines for MIS planning research. By illustrating similarities between the research streams of MIS planning and organizational strategic planning, we derive three major guidelines from a critical review and evaluation of the progress made in the strategic research stream over the last decade. These are: (i) recognition of hierarchy of MIS planning levels and corresponding hierarchy in MIS planning benefits; (ii) specific attention to operationalization of constructs to ensure correspondence between theoretical conceptualization and empirical observation; and (iii) the adoption of an overarching research framework rooted in the contingency theory tradition. We hope that the discussion will stimulate researchers' attention toward developing a program of research on MIS planning.
Keywords: MIS planning; methodology of MIS planning research; linkage between MIS planning & strategic planning

Organizational Size and Information System Sophistication - Lehman, John A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
The issue of organizational size versus administrative innovation has long been of interest to economists and policy makers. The literature in this area suggests that there should be a relationship between organizational size and administrative innovation. Empirical studies of information system use have found that in the context of medical information systems, there seems to be a relationship between size and computer use. A recent paper by Gremillion in JMIS reported empirical evidence that the two variables are independent, contrary to the results predicted by established theory. This paper presents the results of a study intended to provide confirmatory evidence of this lack of relationship when some of the constraints of Gremillion's study are relaxed. The results suggest a significant relationship between organizational size and information system sophistication, although this relationship may be muddied by technical and organizational factors.
Keywords: MIS and organization size; innovation; computer graphics

A Note on Information Attributes - Swanson, E Burton (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
The attribute space of the concept of "information," as presented by the MIS textbook literature, is reviewed and summarized. Lack of closure is found, indicative of the absence of an accepted theory within which the information construct is consistently understood. Two contrasting approaches to theoretical unification are identified.
Keywords: information; attribute space

Are MIS Frameworks Premature? - Kochen, Manfred (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1985)
Research on MIS has been guided by the belief that the building and use of definitional frameworks should precede theoretical and experimental studies, with applications or uses of these results coming last. A reversal of this sequence is proposed, with uses of MIS being scientifically studied first, leaving the search for definitions for the future. The success of this strategy is illustrated with the history of the derivative as a broad analog of the MIS concept.
Keywords: MIS research; MIS frameworks; heuristics

Communications Requirements for Group Decision Support Systems - Tung, Bui; Jarke, Matthias (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
Despite the increasing interest in developing group decision support systems (GDSS), it remains unclear how communications between participants of a group problem solving process can be designed, implemented, and utilized in a computer-based distributed GDSS. This paper presents a framework for developing a Communications component for the GDSS. It supports conceptualization of a communication system as being composed of four main modules: the Group Norm Monitor, the Group Norm Filter, the Invocation Mechanism, and the individual decision support system (IDSS)-to-GDSS Document Formatter. In reference to the International Standard Organization (ISO) Open System Architecture, the three first modules are integrated in the Application layer, and the last module in the Presentation layer.
Keywords: group decision support systems; distributed decision support systems; communications for decision support

Shopping in the Electronic Marketplace - Lee, Ronald M; Widmeyer, George R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
The concept of an electronic marketplace is introduced whereby consumers may browse through a structured database giving product offerings and local supply outlets. We consider the nature of software to facilitate the shopping process developing a concept of similarity between generic products using a semantic net structure. The search is guided by specified user preferences. A prototype implementation, using Prolog, is described.
Keywords: database; semantic nets; telecommunications; logic programming; electronic commerce

Representing Models as Data - Lenard, Melanie L (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
The design of a model management component begins with choosing a representation for the models in the model base. We propose to represent models as data in a database having a logical structure suggested by the principles of structured modeling. The mathematical functions used in modeling are represented as factorable functions.
Keywords: model management systems; model base; structured modeling; decision support systems

Automating Planning Environments: Knowledge Integration and Model Scripting - McIntyre, Scott C; Konsynski, Benn R; Nunamaker Jr, Jay F (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
Progress has been limited in understanding the nature of Information Systems (IS) planning and accomplishing its goals. Two problems which contribute fundamentally are the dynamism of IS and the difficulty of integrating multiple perspectives on IS planning. Automated environments which support the IS planning process must address these two issues, dynamism and integration. In this paper, three perspectives on the IS planning process are reviewed. Knowledge-based techniques using Semantic Inheritance Nets are described as useful for view integration and for providing a flexible, dynamic, automated model of the IS planning environment which is accessible to is tools. The use of scripting in IS planning models is examined as a way to address the issue of IS dynamism. Implementation of these techniques is described in PLEXPLAN, a knowledge-based environment for IS planning. Application of knowledge integration and model scripting in an instance of PLEXPLAN use is described.
Keywords: information systems planning; automated planning; knowledge bases; semantic nets; model scripting

Using a Knowledge-Based Decision Support System in Strategic Planning Decisions: An Empirical Study - Goul, Michael; Shane, Barry; Tonge, Fred M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
A knowledge-based decision support system (DSS) that guides, instructs, and provides reasoning was used to identify strategic opportunities, problems, and crises. The system's objective is to improve subsequent decisions by novice users to a level commensurate with that of more experienced decision makers. An empirical study, using an independent groups design, was conducted to examine the effects of a knowledge-based DSS on performance in the "problem-finding" or initial stage of the strategic planning process. The results of the study indicate that using knowledge-based DSS can improve the decision maker's ability to identify and assess problems in unstructured environments. The experimental treatments were (1) using a DSS with a complete knowledge base, (2) using a DSS with a 10% subset of the complete knowledge base, and (3) using no DSS. Several performance measures of the decision-making process are presented.
Keywords: expert subsystems in decision support; knowledge bases; effectiveness of decision support systems; decision support systems

Systems to Think With: A Response to "A Vision for Decision Support Systems" - Weber, E Sue (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
This paper addresses the question of how Decision Support Systems, (DSS) should be designed to stimulate learning and creativity. Research has shown that increasing one's use of learning and problem-solving strategies can significantly improve performance. Based on this perspective, the DSS designer's responsibility becomes one of providing strategies that facilitate learning and creative thinking.
Keywords: problem-solving strategies; creativity in decision making; decision support systems

Controlling the Use and Evolution of Database Systems: A Prolog-based Approach - Rozenshtein, David; Minsky, Naftaly (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
This paper presents a model that provides a single comprehensive mechanism to control the use, operation, and evolution of database systems. This model unifies several concepts generally considered to be quite distinct. In particular, it minimizes the formal distinction between the users of the database, the programs embedded in it, and even the administrators and the programmers maintaining it. Furthermore, under this model, the concepts of subschema and of program module are replaced with a single concept of frame, which serves as the locus of power and of activity in the system. Moreover, the proposed control mechanism is closed, in the sense that the process of establishing controls is itself controllable by the same mechanism. This can be used to formalize and enforce a variety of managerial policies about the use and evolution of database systems.
Keywords: database evolution; access authorization; operations control; database integrity; PROLOG databases; database

Generating an Optimal Information System: PMAX-SDLC and the Redirection of MIS Research (or How to Help Joe Eat Salmon) - Marsden, James R; Pingry, David E (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
It is argued that information systems should be treated as any other input into the firm's production process and, as such, should be selected based on their contribution to the profit of the firm. It is argued that the present systems development life cycle (SDLC) heuristics lead to systems which are feasible and satisficing, but do not lead to a profit maximizing design. An alternative strategy—profit-maximizing systems development life cycle (PMAX-SDLC)—is proposed which is based on the use of process models. These models have their origin in the economics literature and were developed to accurately characterize engineering production processes. Although PMAX-SDLC is more complex than the current SDLC, several empirical conjectures are presented which would support the notion that the potential benefits of redirecting management information systems (MIS) research toward optimal systems design could be large.
Keywords: systems development life cycle; systems analysis and design; optimal information systems

Controlling Bias in User Assertions in Expert Decision Support Systems for Problem Formulation - Paradice, David B; Courtney Jr, James F (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
Information on cause-effect relationships among variables in the problem domain is one type of knowledge required in expert decision support systems for problem formulation. This knowledge must be acquired from "expert" managers and stored in the system's knowledge base. Unfortunately even experienced managers may be biased in their beliefs about cause-effect relationships. We present a system which uses causal modeling, path analysis, and an historical database to statistically verify asserted relationships as they are entered into the system. Since it is possible that a valid assertion is not statistically supported, the user has the option to insert a relationship into the knowledge base even though the analysis may not indicate statistical validity. Information on rejected relationships is maintained in a "rejection base" which is used later to retest assertions whose validity may have changed due to updates to the database. The intent is to provide a system which helps the user learn, in an unbiased manner, about the true nature of causal relationships in the problem domain.
Keywords: decision support systems; expert systems; problem formulation

Organizational Factors Affecting the Success of End-User Computing - Cheney, Paul H; Mann, Robert I; Amoroso, Donald L (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
End-user computing is one of the most significant phenomena to occur in the information systems industry in the last ten years [10, 39]. This paper attempts to identify those variables that affect the success or failure of end-user computing within an organization. The variables are classified as controllable, partially controllable, or uncontrollable. A conceptual scheme originally suggested by Ein-Dor and Segev [24] is adopted and applied to end-user computing. Previous research on end-user computing is reviewed and several propositions relating organizational variables to the success of end-user computing are suggested.
Keywords: human information processing; organizational factors of MIS

Capability Criteria for Marketing Decision Support Systems - Goslar, Martin D (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
Decision support systems (DSS) are becoming popular computer information system tools to assist in resolving strategic business problems. This paper reports the results of a laboratory study investigating the usefulness of DSS features for marketing problem solving. Marketers perceived DSS model interrogation features as most useful during decision making. Simulation capabilities and features enabling probabilistic specification of problem variables were considered least useful. Study results suggest that model building and decision training be included when introducing a DSS.
Keywords: decision support systems; marketing information systems

Adaptation of Information Systems Building Blocks to Design Forces - Burch, John G (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
The paper establishes a generic definition of all information systems. The basis of this definition includes six building blocks. The focus of this paper is how these building blocks must adapt to ten design forces for the development of successful information systems.
Keywords: MIS components; organizational factors of MIS; MIS design factors

The Cost of Internally Developed Applications: Analysis of Problems and Cost Control Methods - Helms, Glenn L; Weiss, Ira R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
The organizational cost of developing software continues to be higher than is projected within the organizations' budgets. Numerous design methods have been developed to assist in bringing the cost of development under control. The research reported in this article indicates that few of these methods have assisted in bringing costs under control and actually some have caused greater cost overruns.
Keywords: system development methodologies; information systems costs; quality assurance

Financial Impact of Information Processing - Bender, Donald H (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
The economic evaluation of information processing systems has been frustrating in that objective analysis has become extremely difficult. At best cost-benefit is determined "post facto." The current emphasis on management information systems and decision support systems further obscures the early evaluation process because it is difficult to pre-determine the benefits that are expected. Research conducted in the life insurance industry, using data collected from many companies, reveals: —that the economic benefit of automated systems might be evaluated best by measurements involving a company's entire expenditure for information processing as opposed to the economic benefits derived from individual systems; —that too little spent for information processing could have a negative impact on the total expense position of a company relative to other companies; —that expenditures for some components of information processing have a greater impact on the total expense position of a company. While continued attempts to measure the benefits of individual systems are encouraged, the results suggest that economic benefit should also be measured based on the composite of all expenditures for information processing. Perhaps other companies of different industries should be motivated to pursue this approach.
Keywords: information processing costs; life insurance information processing; expense/ income ratios; return on assets; value of information systems

Adaptive Information Systems Control: A Reliability-based Approach - De, Prabuddha; Cheng, Hsu (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
The problem of information systems control is well known to information managers, but its scientific nature has not been studied thoroughly. The literature of information systems (IS) has been concerned mostly with such problems as IS policies and system development methodologies. Relatively few attempts have been made to solve the problem of adapting an ongoing IS in a systematic fashion. This adaptation problem, however, is critical in is management since an IS is really an evolving structure rather than a stable, one-shot phenomenon. Toward this end, this article develops a framework for general systems control using a reliability-based approach and characterizes the IS control problem accordingly. Then, an adaptive control construct is proposed for systematic evolution of an IS over time. Both users' satisfaction with the IS and the usage pattern are monitored on a real-time basis and used for controlling the IS adaptively. Chance-constrained models are proposed to characterize suitable decision rules. Some model scenarios demonstrating the feasibility of the approach are discussed.
Keywords: information systems management; database evolution; system reliability

The Application of Prototyping to Systems Development: A Rationale and Model - Cerveny, Robert P; Garrity, Edward J; Sanders, G Lawrence (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
While prototyping has become an important topic in systems analysis and design, several questions remain unanswered. This paper addresses issues related to the implementation and function of prototyping in the traditional systems development life cycle. A definition of prototyping and a theoretical justification of the approach are developed. Finally, a model is presented which assists analysts and users in determining when, and to what extent, to use prototyping either along with or as a replacement for traditional systems development techniques.
Keywords: prototyping; systems development; managerial learning

Integration of Computer Graphics and Statistical Procedures for Decision Support Systems - Smith, L Douglas; Janson, Marius A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
This paper presents techniques of integrating statistical procedures and computer graphics for decision support. Characteristics of good statistical support are defined. Experience in the design and implementation of systems in two companies is related to illustrate how the techniques can facilitate the creation of effective computerized decision support systems. Software modules were developed that enable nontechnical analysts to utilize sophisticated statistical procedures and complex models with a few simple commands. By integrating computer graphics and computer cartography with tools for statistical modeling, superior analytical tools were created.
Keywords: decision support systems; graphics in information systems; statistics in decision support

Effects of Decision Support Systems Training and Cognitive Style on Decision Process Attributes - Green, Gary I; Hughes, Cary T (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
Decision support systems (DSS) are increasingly being utilized in decision-making situations. However, little is known about why some managers are able to use a DSS effectively and others are not. While numerous factors could affect a manager's use of a DSS, this paper reports the results of an experiment designed to measure two of them: type of training received and cognitive style. A controlled laboratory experiment with pretest and posttest measures was conducted using 63 managers to determine how the type of training and the cognitive styles of managers affected their use of a DSS generator. Analysis of the results shows that there is an interaction between cognitive style and type of training which affected the manager's initial use of a DSS generator. It appears that providing managers with the appropriate type of training should increase the chances for more effective DSS usage.
Keywords: decision support systems; training; cognitive style; decision process attributes

Developing Model Strings for Model Managers - Klein, Gary (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
Models are a key component in the decision-making process. Model managers have been proposed to select and direct the use of models in a decision setting. A limitation of model managers is their inability to optimally integrate several models to arrive at a decision. A scheme to overcome this limitation is presented. By specifying input requirements to each model and outputs available from each model, a string of models may be developed. An implicit enumeration algorithm ensures a feasible string of models for a required output and composes the string in optimal form according to a user-defined objective. The algorithm may be used in conjunction with existing model management techniques.
Keywords: decision support systems; model management systems; model integration

Strategic Alternatives and Interorganizational System Implementations: An Overview - Barrett, Stephanie S (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
The potential strategic importance of information systems is now an accepted fact. The context of this importance, however, transcends traditional data processing, user functional departments, and, more importantly, organizational boundaries. Inter-organizational information systems (IOS) that automate the flow of information interchange across organizational boundaries are made possible by technological advances in data communications. This paper discusses a range of strategic options and IOS implementations.
Keywords: strategic information systems; inter-organizational information systems; information systems planning

Firm Performance and Monitoring of Critical Success Factors in Different Strategic Contexts - Jenster, Per V (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
This article investigates the relationship between firm performance and executive monitoring of critical success factors (CSF) across selected business strategies. Based on data from 124 organizations, the study examines executive monitoring patterns as they relate to multiple measures of organizational performance. We also examine the degree to which differences in the monitoring-performance relationship exist across the four generic business strategies.
Keywords: strategic information systems; critical success factors (CSF)

Plant Management, the Locus of Decision Making, and the Information Services Department - Lucas Jr, Henry C; Palley, Michael A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
A theory of intraorganizational power is discussed and applied to the information services department. This study involved the collection of data from 37 plant managers on their perceptions of the power of information services. The results indicate that plant managers, like their department manager counterparts in an earlier study, considered the information services department to be the least critical for success of five departments. Centralization of decision making was found to be positively related to information services department power. The implications of the study for distributed versus centralized information processing are discussed.
Keywords: MIS in organizations; criticality of MIS; decentralization of MIS; MIS structure

Managing Personal Computer Use: The Role of Corporate Management Information Systems - Pyburn, Philip J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
Managing the influx of personal computers (PC) presents a significant dilemma for most management information systems (MIS) executives. On the one hand, too tight control will limit the creative use of PCs and may in fact force users "underground" (where formal standards, methodologies, and controls have little effect). A laissez-faire approach, on the other hand, can often lead to inappropriate, ineffective applications being developed by users on their PCs. This article presents the results of a field study of how eight firms are striking this balance, and it suggests two frameworks for understanding how firms must change their PC management practices in different circumstances.
Keywords: human information processing; management of personal computing; models of personal computer use

An Automated Software Design Methodology Using CAPO - Karimi, Jahangir (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
Software design is the process which decomposes a set of requirement specifications into certain basic elements and partitions these decomposed specifications into modules. In this paper, important techniques for the logical design of software and the properties associated with a structured design are analyzed in order to develop a framework for an automated approach to software design. To ensure software quality, a set of matrices is developed to guide the design process and to evaluate the quality of a design for the purpose of comparing different designs. The applicability of the methodology in nonsequential and object-oriented design environments is also discussed.
Keywords: software design methodologies; structured design; system modularization

The Role of Programming Language in Estimating Software Development Costs - Harrison, Warren; Adrangi, Bahram (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
It is commonly thought that the choice of programming language has an effect on the amount of effort involved in writing a program to solve a particular problem. However, relatively little work has been done previously in attempting to quantify this specific effect. This study analyzed 279 Department of Defense software projects which used assembly language, COBOL, FORTRAN, or PL/1. Our findings suggest that any of the high-level languages reduces the amount of effort required to develop a given-sized project when compared to assembly language.
Keywords: software cost estimation; programming language as software cost driver

Open versus Closed Minds: The Effect of Dogmatism on an Analyst's Problemsolving Behavior - Paddock, Charles E; Swanson, Neil E (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1986)
Developing successful information systems depends in part on the approach and attitude of systems analysts toward solving user problems. "Understanding human behavior is a prerequisite to the successful design and implementation of all information systems" [2]. This research investigates whether dogmatism, the degree to which an individual's belief-disbelief system is open or closed, can be related to systems analysts' problem-solving approach (flexible vs. inflexible) and problem-solving attitude (positive vs. negative). Dogmatism is used to classify participants' responses to an information systems problem scenario. Results indicate that differences do exist. The article presents background related to successful information systems projects and the dogmatism construct, describes the study, presents and discusses its findings, and concludes with some implications and suggestions for future research.
Keywords: behavioral factors in MIS; dogmatism in systems analysis

Facilitating Group Creativity: Experience with a Group Decision Support System - Nunamaker Jr, Jay F; Applegate, Lynda M; Konsynski, Benn R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
This paper reports on the results of research on the use of a group decision support system (GDSS) for idea generation and analysis within a planning and decision laboratory environment. Our experience to date in the use of the idea generation models suggests that the technology does significantly influence the planning process. The automated version of the brainstorming model appears to neutralize many of the group effects that have been responsible for poor performance of group brainstorming in the past. Anonymity is maintained and group members appear to express their true feelings without fear of social disapproval. In addition, the automated idea generation models appear to neutralize the effects of an authority hierarchy in the group. The models allow parallel processing of ideas and prevent one group member from dominating the group discussion. All ideas are automatically recorded in the computer and are stored within the knowledge base for use throughout the planning process. Several factors that inhibit the idea generation process have also been identified. These include the limits imposed on the "world view" of the problem as a result of the size of the computer screen, the unfamiliarity of the keyboard interface as a creative tool for executives, and the limitations of the network for processing multiple, simultaneous file transfers. Data indicate that the benefits of the Electronic Brainstorming process definitely outweigh the problems in the view of the planners. They report high levels of satisfaction with the outcome of planning sessions using the models and the process used to achieve those outcomes. They rated the computer as an important tool for idea generation, and those planners who had used a manual brainstorming model in the past rated the computer brainstorming process as "much better" than manual brainstorming. The study reported in this paper was descriptive in nature and designed to generate hypotheses that will form the basis for...
Keywords: strategy; group decision support systems; decision making; brainstorming; idea generation; creativity; productivity tools; planning aids; decision room

Knowledge Management in Organizational Planning - Applegate, Lynda M; Tsung Teng, Chen; Konsynski, Benn R; Nunamaker Jr, Jay F (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
There is growing recognition that the ability to provide automated support for unstructured decision making within organizations will require the integration of knowledge-based expert system techniques and traditional decision support system architectures. Several knowledge representations are applicable in the specification, management, and communication of knowledge associated with organizational planning, a classic ill-structured problem facing organizations. This paper describes the requirements for knowledge management in organizational planning. A knowledge-based planning system that has been implemented by the authors is presented. The system integrates data management, model management, and process management systems within a group decision support system environment. Knowledge management tools for describing, classifying, and storing the output of the planning process are described. Use of the system in the Management Information Systems (MIS) Planning and Decision Laboratory at the University of Arizona with a group of city planners is discussed.
Keywords: knowledge bases; knowledge management; knowledge-based management systems; model management systems; organizational planning; group decision support systems; planning systems

Causal and Non-causal Relationships and Dynamic Model Construction in a Managerial Advisory System - Paradice, David B; Courtney Jr, James F (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
Recent successes in the design and implementation of expert systems in non-managerial problem domains has spurred interest in the proposition that expert systems may be viable in managerial problem domains as well. Continuing research in the design, implementation, and testing of a prototype managerial expert system is described in this paper.
Keywords: problem formulation; expert systems; decision support systems

A Tool to Support Competitive Argumentation - Kandt, Kirk (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
The current production of analytic reports is flawed in many ways. Data tend to be poorly managed and difficult to access. Much of the information, therefore, is overlooked. The reasoning behind conclusions of a report often is not adequately justified. Distinctions between or identification of facts, assumptions, hypotheses, and definitions is seldom made explicit. Consequently, an aid has been developed that addresses these weaknesses to better support analytical activities.
Keywords: expert systems; assumption-based truth maintenance system; case-based reasoning; argumentation support

POOL: A Semantic Model for Approximate Reasoning and Its Application in Decision Support - Wen-Ran, Zhang (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
POOL—A Semantic Model for Approximate Reasoning—is based on the theory of linguistic fuzzy relations (LFR) and linguistic similarity relations (LSR). The proposed model combines the advantages of linguistic representation and numerical computation. Hence, it can facilitate knowledge representation and approximate reasoning for object/concept relation modeling especially in an environment containing imprecision, ambiguity, and/or uncertainty, which is often the case faced by knowledge engineers in building decision support systems.
Keywords: symbolic systems; semantic systems; linguistic similarity relations; linguistic transitive closures; approximate reasoning; decision support systems

The Design of an Investment Portfolio Selection Decision Support System Using Two Expert Systems and a Consulting System - Shane, Barry; Fry, Mitchel; Toro, Reuben (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
Two expert systems form the basis for the design of a consulting system that provides advice for selecting an investment portfolio for an individual. Current economic indicators are compared with an investor's financial goals and constraints by one expert system to augment the other. The first expert system distributes its domain knowledge to the second. Subsequent to this knowledge sharing, the second expert system matches a person's financial attributes, goals, and risk preferences with investment choices to recommend portfolio mixes. The consulting system suggests portfolio mixes that are preferred by experienced investment counselors within the boundaries of the Decision Support System (DSS) output.
Keywords: expert systems; decision support systems; financial portfolio construction

Integrating Management Support Systems into Strategic Information Systems Planning - Henderson, John C; Rockart, John F; Sifonis, John G (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
The critical success factor (CSF) methodology is extended to explicitly examine the critical assumptions underlying the CSFS and to identify opportunities for investment in management information systems (MIS), decision support systems (DSS), and executive support systems (ESS). A strategic data model is used to help coordinate investments across these types of management support systems. This extended methodology should enhance the validity of an information systems (IS) planning effort because of both the scope of management support systems that are considered and the potential use of the assumptions to reassess and reexamine the soundness of the original CSFS. An actual planning engagement is used to illustrate the application of the methodology.
Keywords: strategic planning of information systems; critical success factors (CSF); executive support systems; decision support systems; assumption identification

On the Plausibility and Scope of Expert Systems in Management - Dhar, Vasant (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
Over the last decade there have been several efforts at building knowledge-based "expert systems," mostly in the scientific and medical arenas. Despite the fact that almost all such systems are in their experimental stages, designers are optimistic about their eventual success. In the last few years, there have been many references to the possibility of expert systems in the management literature. However, what is lacking is a clear theoretical perspective on how various management problems differ in nature from problems in other domains and the implications of these differences for knowledge-based decision support systems for management. In this paper, I examine some of these differences, what they suggest in terms of the functionality that a computer-based system must have in order to support organizational decision making, and the scope of such a system as a decision aid. The discussion is grounded in the context of a computer-based system called PLANET that exhibits some of the desired functionality.
Keywords: expert systems; decision support systems; knowledge-based approach to decision support

A Framework for Selecting between Knowledge-based and Traditional Systems Design - Murray, Thomas J; Tanniru, Mohan R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
Extensive coverage of knowledge-based languages has appeared in the recent literature. However, there has been no discussion of the criteria to be used in selecting between a knowledge-based approach and a traditional, that is, non-knowledge-based, approach for a particular application. This paper presents a framework of application-based criteria to assist in this selection. It also applies this decision framework to a number of real and hypothetical applications.
Keywords: knowledge-based languages; demand for MIS professionals; expert systems

Design of a Self-evolving Decision Support System - Ting-Peng, Liang; Jones, Christopher V (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
The paper presents a self-evolving approach to decision support systems (DSS) design. The basic premise of this approach is that a DSS should be aware of how it is being used and, then, automatically adapt to the evolution of its users. With self-evolving capabilities, a DSS will be able to provide a flexible menu hierarchy and a dynamic user interface. The major difference between the self-evolving design and a DSS developed by current approaches such as system development life cycle and user-involved evolutionary design is that the former has an extra component—the evolutionary mechanism—to control the evolution of the system. In order to develop self-evolving capabilities, the following three components must be developed: (1) a database of user profiles to keep track of related system usage data, (2) a knowledge base to store rules for determining appropriate system default policy, and (3) a control mechanism to control the evolution of the system.
Keywords: self-evolving design; decision support systems; information systems development

Organizing for Decision Support System Support: The End-User Services Alternative - Watson, Hugh J; Carr, Houston H (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
There are a number of organization structure alternatives for supporting decision support systems, and each alternative has its advantages and disadvantages. One emerging alternative, that of providing support through an end-user services group, is being successfully used by the Oglethorpe Power Corporation.
Keywords: decision support systems; organizing for decision support systems (DSS); human information processing

A Framework for the Examination of Management Involvement in Decision Support Systems - Hogue, Jack T (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
Managerial involvement in information systems has often been suggested. Decision support systems (DSS) may well represent the information system category most demanding of management's time. In this paper the author proposes a framework for investigating management involvement in DSS. Next, a report is provided of findings of how, when, and why management involvement in DSS is required. These findings are based upon an examination of eighteen DSS cases and of the existing literature. Last, the framework is compared with the "conventional wisdom" in the existing literature.
Keywords: decision support systems; strategic planning; management of information systems

Issues in the Design of a Distributed Testbed for Multimedia Information Systems (MINOS) - Christodoulakis, Stavros; Velissaroupoulos, Theodora (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
Multimedia INfOrmation Systems (MINOS) manage largely unformatted data such as text, image, voice, attributes, and programs. This paper presents the motivation, the hardware tools, the important issues, and the problems involved in the design and implementation of a multimedia object server testbed. The testbed will allow us to study the impact of various design decisions and algorithms on system performance, the most successful of which will be integrated in the final implementation of distributed MINOS. The distributed architecture proposed is based on the client server model, where an optical disk-based subsystem serves as the archival component and where the presentation manager of the client subsystem includes handling of the internal structure, external logical organization, and browsing through multimedia objects.
Keywords: multimedia information systems; unformatted data types

Assessing Data Reliability in an Information System - Agmon, Nachman; Ahituv, Niv (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
Information is valuable if it derives from reliable data. However, measurements for data reliability have not been widely established in the area of information systems (IS). This paper attempts to draw some concepts of reliability from the field of quality control and to apply them to IS. The paper develops three measurements for data reliability: internal reliability--reflects the "commonly accepted" characteristics of various data items; relative reliability--indicates compliance of data to user requirements; and absolute reliability--determines the level of resemblance of data items to reality. The relationships between the three measurements are discussed, and the results of a field study are displayed and analyzed. The results provide some insightful information on the "shape" of the database that was inspected, as well as on the degree of rationality of some user requirements. General conclusions and avenues for future research are suggested.
Keywords: data reliability; quality control of information systems; data validity

On the Interdependencies between Record Structure and Access Path Design - March, Salvatore T; Carlis, John V (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
The physical organization of data within a database has two major components: record structures and access paths. Record structures specify the grouping of data items into data records that are physically stored and accessed together. Access paths specify the algorithms and system data used to determine the physical location of data records and to efficiently support content-dependent searching. Choosing efficient record structures and access paths is complicated by the fact that they are interdependent. This paper formalizes these interdependencies and proposes an approach to solving the combined record structure-access path design problem. This work extends an existing database design system in four ways: (1) record segmentation is extended to include redundantly stored data in any number of independently processed segments; (2) dependent access paths are added allowing us to design multiple, interrelated file organizations at the same time; (3) new methods are proposed to assist in the generation of potentially useful record structures; and (4) inter-file organization performance constraints can be specified.
Keywords: record segmentation; access paths; physical database design

Improvements in Database Concurrency Control with Locking - Croker, Albert (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
Various techniques have been proposed to ensure the safe, concurrent execution of a set of database transactions. Locking protocols are the most prominent and widely used of these techniques, with two-phase locking and tree locking being but two examples of these protocols. A locking protocol defines a general set of restrictions on the placement of lock and unlock steps within transactions. In this paper we show that it is possible to further increase the potential level of concurrency of a set of transactions, within the context of a specific locking protocol, by further restricting the placement of lock and unlock steps within each transaction. We also discuss a variation of the tree locking protocols that allows transactions to be locked with respect to a dynamically changing set of tree structures. In addition, we define and discuss the concept of a concurrency cost function for a locked transaction. This cost function measures the potential for conflict of a transaction with other transactions.
Keywords: concurrency control; two-phase locking protocol; tree locking protocol; database design

Transaction Processing and Consistency Control of Replicated Copies during Failures in Distributed Databases - Bhargava, Bharat (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
Consistency of replicated copies is difficult to maintain and recover during multiple failures of sites and network communication in a distributed database system. Transaction processing must continue as long as a single copy is available. But in a multiple failure environment, each operational site must make correct decisions about which copy to update and which one will be updated by the recovery system. This requires refreshing the copies on failed sites that missed the updates and doing this correctly while other transactions are updating and some more sites are either failing or recovering. This problem has been classified as the "replicated copy control problem." In this paper, we present several ideas that are necessary to attack and manage this problem. We introduce the ideas of session numbers, nominal session vectors, fail locks, and view serializability and discuss their role in transaction processing on operational, recovering, and partitioned sites. We have experimented with many of these ideas in a prototype system called RAID and we present the implementation issues. There is little overhead associated with our approach if no failures occur.
Keywords: replicated databases; multiple site failures; consistency control of replicated copies; distributed databases

A Performance Comparison of Optimistic versus Conservative Strategies during Partition Failures in Distributed Databases - Davison, Susan B; Winkler, Mark M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
Two strategies for processing transactions during partition failures in distributed databases are reviewed: the optimistic protocol and conservative class conflict graph analysis. Both use graph techniques for detecting and resolving conflicts, although one is "optimistic," detecting and resolving conflict after the failure is repaired, while the other is "conservative," detecting and preventing potential conflicts when the failure occurs. A simulation comparing the two approaches with respect to the cost of missed opportunity, the cost of repair, and overhead cost is presented, along with sample results. The optimistic protocol generally minimizes missed opportunity, while conservative class conflict graph analysis requires less overhead and no repair. The applicability of these approaches to fractured networks involving more than two partitions is also discussed.
Keywords: distributed databases; network partitioning; database design

Expansion and Control of End-User Computing - Munro, Malcolm C; Huff, Sid L; Moore, Gary (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
End-user computing (EUC) has risen rapidly to prominence in many organizations. As EUC continues to mature, it is becoming clear that there is much more to managing end-user computing than just managing microcomputers. This paper presents a conceptual framework for understanding the overall expansion and control of EUC. The framework is thoroughly illustrated using data drawn from two field studies. Implications that flow from the studies are discussed.
Keywords: human information processing; information center; management of information systems

Strategies for End-User Computing: An Integrative Framework - Alavi, Maryam; Nelson, R Ryan; Weiss, Ira R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
This paper develops a framework consisting of five core strategies or organizational postures vis-a-vis end-user computing (EUC). Following a description of each of the strategies, the authors employed a two-step process to represent (1) how to effectively implement a particular EUC strategy, and (2) when to adopt a particular EUC strategy. The first step, based on some field observations, resulted in a descriptive profiling of the EUC strategies via the management attributes of policy setting and planning, support, and control. The second step produced a prescriptive timing with respect to the phases of EUC strategy evolution. The integrative framework that resulted from this two-step process was based on the premise that EUC technology adoption follows a learning curve phenomenon. In essence, such a framework should serve as a tool, useful to the practitioner in coping with the dynamic environment surrounding the management of end-user computing.
Keywords: human information processing; strategy formulation; technology assimilation

Embedding a Point-to-Point Network in the Expansion of Infrastructure for Information Systems - Veroy, Boris; Zwass, Vladimir (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
Long-term evolution of management information systems toward distributed processing, accompanied of late by the development of inter-organizational systems, has posed increasing demands on the networking infrastructure. Within this framework, point-to-point data communication over a network composed of various media remains the most frequent communication mode. With a large base of network infrastructure in place, the need for incremental capacity increase due to new users who join existing networks has become a recurring problem. Accommodation of new users without downgrading the quality of service that has been provided to existing users requires network capacity expansion. A method is presented for computing the least-cost expansion of link capacities (defined as the number of lines in a link) on a point-to-point path in a network, subject to the constraint on the grade of service. A polynomial-time numerical algorithm is provided, along with the results of computer experiments.
Keywords: inter-organization systems; network expansion; capacity expansion; multi-link networks; point-to-point networks

Problem Management: Neglected Elements in Decision Support Systems - Weber, E Sue; Konsynski, Benn R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
The majority of current decision support systems (DSS) have concentrated on managing solutions rather than on managing the full range of problem-solving events. As a result, certain critical functions have been neglected. The authors define problem management in terms of problem finding, problem representation, information surveillance, solution generation, and evaluation. They propose a set of functional requirements for DSS that actively aids decision makers in each of these processes. Elements of a DSS architecture are presented to demonstrate the potential for support of these activities.
Keywords: problem management; decision support systems; problem representation

Motivation Norms of Knowledge Engineers Compared to Those of Software Engineers - Couger, J Daniel; McIntyre, Scott C (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
This paper describes the results of a survey of members of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence (knowledge engineers) concerning their individual need for growth and their perceptions about their work environment. Responses are compared to those of software engineers whose qualifications are similar to those of knowledge engineers. Comparisons are made on 16 variables. The analysis shows that personnel in the two job categories are quite similar; both have quite high need for growth and therefore need jobs rich in the factors key to motivation. The survey also identified several problems that managers in the artificial intelligence (AI) area need to resolve.
Keywords: artificial intelligence; knowledge engineers; software engineer; motivation; core job dimensions; individual growth need

A Multiple Criteria Decision Support System for Global Financial Planning - Eom, Hyun B; Lee, Sang M; Snyder, Charles A; Ford, F Nelson (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1987)
This paper presents a goal programming (GP) model-based multiple criteria decision support system (DSS) for global financial planning of a multinational corporation (MNC). The GP model-based DSS provides a major technological breakthrough for presenting solutions for the critical issues in global financial planning and provides substantial improvement over existing approaches. The strategic DSS allows the financial managers of an MNC to choose an appropriate global financing strategy to satisfice the multiple, and often conflicting, management goals and to effectively analyze the trade-offs among costs, foreign exchange risks, political risks, and managerial motivation goals.
Keywords: decision support systems; multiple criteria decision making; goal programming; financing and capital structure; multinational corporations

Strategic Planning for Information Systems: Requirements and Information Engineering Methods - Karimi, Jahangir (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
The purpose of strategic planning for information systems (SPIS) is to provide a systematic process for developing a long-range plan for information systems on the basis of the organization's overall strategic plan. For an organization to perform SPIS properly, it must consider both the organizational and the technical aspects of planning. The organizational aspect emphasizes the necessity of an integrated information systems plan and its close link to the organization's objectives. The technical aspect emphasizes the necessity of planning for information systems architecture (ISA). A framework is proposed for (1) showing how the planning efforts should be coordinated in the form of a specific sequence of events for planning, modeling, and designing the ISA, (2) identifying organizational entities that should initiate and coordinate planning, modeling, and designing the ISA, (3) identifying the required processes for promoting the interactions necessary between the organizational entities for effective SPIS directions and actions, (4) distinguishing and then classifying the current SPIS methods that are useful for SPIS activities based on their characteristics as methodologies, techniques, and tools, and (5) identifying avenues for further research in terms of responding to the apparent lack that exists in the available methods.
Keywords: strategic planning; information systems planning; information engineering; information systems architecture

The Effect of Presentation Media on Recipient Performance in Text-based Information Systems - Kasper, George M; Morris, Andrew H (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
The effect of presentation media on recipient performance and perceived difficulty in text-based information systems was investigated. Based on data collected in a laboratory setting, we examined differences among electronic mail, audio, and audio/video media in terms of message comprehension and perceived difficulty. Twenty-four volunteer business administration faculty and graduate students were subjects for the repeated-measures experiment. The results show that media affects message comprehension, but does not alter the recipient's perception of the difficulty of the message. Media that require reading the message were found to be superior to audio media in terms of comprehension.
Keywords: text-based information systems; computer-mediated communication systems; electronic mail; office automation

A Short-From Measure of User Information Satisfaction: A Psychometric Evaluation and Notes on Use - Baroudi, Jack J; Orlikowski, Wanda J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
This study examines the psychometric properties of the short-form measure of user information satisfaction (UIS) proposed by Ives, Olson, and Baroudi [7]. Based on extensive testing, the questionnaire appears to be a reasonably valid and reliable measure. A framework for how this measure can be used to detect and diagnose problems with user satisfaction is presented and illustrated via two case studies. Finally, recommendations and suggestions are made regarding the future use of this and other measures of user information satisfaction.
Keywords: user information satisfaction; measures of user satisfaction

An Investigation of the Effects of Age, Size, and Hardware Option on the Critical Success Factors Applicable to Information Centers - Magal, Simha R; Carr, Houston H (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
The use of the critical success factor (CSF) method has been suggested by several sources as a means of ensuring the success of an organization. An investigation was performed to determine the existence and nature of CSFS for information centers (IC). Twenty-six CSFS were determined from various sources. The importance of each was rated in a survey of IC managers, and a principal components analysis was performed to indicate the underlying structure. This paper reports the effect on the composite CSFS of the IC variables age, size, and hardware option supported.
Keywords: critical success factors (CSF); information center; human information processing

Evolutionary Development of Decision Support Systems: Important Issues for Early Phases of Design - Sauter, Vicki L; Schofer, Joseph L (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
It has long been recognized that decision support systems (DSS) should be developed using an evolutionary approach by which users are provided with prototypical systems so that they can respond to specific design characteristics. While this approach generally works well in practice, there remains the problem of where to begin, especially if the designer does not have much experience. Based on limited field studies, we find that preferences for information, both in terms of the content and the format of the data, vary with decision focus (tactical vs. strategic), environmental stability, and, in some cases, experience. These results suggest that, if it is possible to determine the context and decision-maker attributes, it is possible to have a clearer notion of what information to include in the decision support system.
Keywords: decision support systems; evolutionary systems development; prototyping

Using Software Metrics to Allocate Testing Resources - Harrison, Warren (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
Several methods of allocating testing resources among modules within a large software development project are examined and evaluated. The objective of each of the allocation schemes is to distribute resources across modules so that a uniform percentage of resources is allocated based on the predicted number of errors each module contains (i.e., resources per error are the same for each module). By far, the most uniform allocation of resources per error is obtained through the use of software complexity metrics. However, the allocation was not perfect in any of the strategies considered, suggesting that additional work must be performed to arrive at better approaches to allocation.
Keywords: software testing; software metrics; management of software development

Knowledge-based Systems Support for Information Centers - Nunamaker Jr, Jay F; Konsynski, Benn R; Chen, Minder; Vinze, Ajay S; Chen, Y Irene Liou; Heltne, Mari M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
Information centers (ICs) are taking on an increasingly important role in organizational computing and are being given responsibility for supporting the enhancement of information system technology in the organization. There are primarily three areas of responsibility for the ICs: consultation, distribution, and help service. The information center expert (ICE) project attempts to provide knowledge-based support for ICs. The ICE project has three divisions, corresponding with the three areas of responsibility for information centers. The three divisions are: information center expert for consultation (ICE/C), distribution (ICE/D), and help service (ICE/H). The ICE/C system has been developed using Expert System Environment/Virtual Machine (ESE/VM) on the IBM 4381 mainframe. The system is operational and is being tested in five different ICs. ICE/C is used for consultation with IC users to assist them with the process of software selection. The paper presents the ICE/C architecture and discusses functional extensions to ICE/C, that is, ICE/D and ICE/H, for supporting the other responsibilities of the IC. The design considerations for these extensions are discussed. The development of ICE/C surfaced concerns regarding acquiring knowledge from multiple experts. An alternative approach using a group decision support environment to elicit knowledge from experts is presented. The paper also discusses the use of an object-oriented approach as a representation technique.
Keywords: knowledge-based systems; expert systems; information center; knowledge acquisition; object-oriented systems

Object-oriented Systems Analysis and Design: Methodology and Application - McIntyre, Scott C; Higgins, Lexis F (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
This paper presents the results of research into applying an object-oriented approach to systems analysis and design. Characteristics of object-oriented model building are briefly reviewed. A methodology is described which aids development of system modeling and simulation as the analysis and design process proceeds. The paper also describes the advantages of modeling analysis tools as objects which are integrated into the environment being analyzed. These principles are demonstrated by an object-oriented systems analysis and design recently conducted by the authors.
Keywords: object-oriented systems; systems analysis; system design

McKesson Drug Company: A Case Study Economost -- A Strategic Information System - Clemons, Eric K; Row, Michael C (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
There has been considerable attention paid to competitive and strategic information systems. Few cases, however, have been studied and presented in detail. McKesson's order entry and distribution system, Economost, is one of the most widely cited strategic information systems, with wide acceptance; nearly 100% of McKesson's orders are entered electronically by customers. Impact on customers, and on McKesson's costs, has been favorable and dramatic. Similar systems are now widely available from major competitors; the effect of such systems on the industry, and on industry consolidation, has also been significant. But differential competitive impact on McKesson is more difficult to establish.
Keywords: strategic information systems; strategic use of information; information systems case studies

User Prescriptions of Decision Support System Restrictiveness: An Experiment - Silver, Mark S (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
We often think of decision support systems (DSS) simply as expanding managerial information-processing capabilities. When a manager relies on the functional capabilities of a particular DSS in solving a problem, however, he or she is actually restricted to some subset of the full range of possible decision-making processes. DSS builders may wish to use this "restrictiveness" characteristic as a design variable, deliberately choosing the ways in which a DSS restricts its users. To do so effectively, builders need to know whether restrictiveness should be treated as an absolute or a relative; attribute. A key research question, therefore, is whether all users will be restricted identically by a given DSS. This paper reports on an experiment exploring if and how different users of the same DSS differ in their perceptions of system restrictiveness. Subjects used three DSS and ranked them from most to least restrictive. The results indicated that, while there was a significant similarity among rankings, there were also substantial differences. Several factors contributing to the perceptual differences were identified; these can serve as the basis for further research.
Keywords: decision support systems; user perception of information systems; system restrictiveness

A Comparison of the Manipulation of Certainty Factors by Individuals and Expert System Shells - Kopcso, David; Pipino, Leo; Rybolt, William (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
This paper addresses the treatment of uncertainty in expert system shells. A review of the modeling of uncertainty by expert system shells is presented. An experiment to replicate earlier work investigating the manner in which individuals manipulate certainty factors in comparison to commercial shells is discussed. Comparisons are made between seven commercial shells, both personal computer (PC) and mainframe based, and individuals. A significant difference between individuals and shells as well as among shells themselves is indicated. Some implications for both expert system and decision support system (DSS) methodologies are discussed.
Keywords: expert systems; certainty factors; uncertainty in expert systems

A Longitudinal Study of Spreadsheet Program Use - Carlsson, Sven A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
This paper reports on results from a longitudinal case study on use of a spreadsheet program (SP). The work reported here focuses on spreadsheet program users' perceptions of the SP and their information environment (including SP models), and changes in users' perceptions of their information environment and the SP. The approach has its roots in Kelly's personal construct theory [31] and in cognitive complexity theories [43, 54, 55]. A version of Kelly's Role Construct Repertory Interview (RCRI) was used to collect data at different points of time over a period of thirteen months. The data were transformed into a measure of integrative complexity and analyzed. The study provides insight into the impact of end-user-developed computer-based models (decision support systems).
Keywords: spreadsheet programs; user perception of information systems; decision support systems; human information processing

Current and Future Uses of Group Decision Support System Technology: Report on a Recent Empirical Study - Straub, Detmar W; Beauclair, Renee A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
Over the last decade group decision support system (GDSS) technology has made enormous advances. This technology has also been studied from conceptual and design perspectives. In this paper we consider how GDSS can be used to improve group decisions in face-to-face conferencing ("decision rooms"), remote site teleconferencing, and remote/local computer conferencing. These prospects have been aided by advances in telecommunications technology and GDSS seems poised for successful integration into modern organizations. This study looks at the actual ways in which GDSS are currently being utilized. The framework for the study was derived from DeSanctis and Gallupe's work; a survey of 135 randomly selected Data Processing Management Association (DPMA) members was used as the sample base. Based on preliminary data analysis, it appears that GDSS are slowly being introduced and supported by information system (IS) departments and that this pattern will be the trend for the immediate future as well. Data analysis will be completed in the near future, but analytical procedures are delineated in the paper. These procedures take two primary forms. Descriptive statistics based on the study data will assess the extent to which organizations are increasing their commitment to GDSS and which current implementations are heaviest in each of the GDSS types. Factor analysis of respondent data will also be used to assess taskgroup usage of GDSS, task groups including: (1) planning, (2) administrative, and (3) data analysis tasks. The study will also assess whether usage of GDSS varies significantly with certain organizational size variables. A better understanding of these relationships should greatly assist IS managers in allocating resources to this new technology and in making the case for GDSS to top management. It should also help GDSS software developers formulate new design features.
Keywords: group decision support systems; teleconferencing; computer conferencing

Evolution towards Strategic Applications of Databases through Composite Information Systems - Madnick, Stuart E; Wang, Y Richard (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
Many important strategic applications involve inter-corporate linkage or intra-corporate integration of information. This requires multiple databases to work together. We refer to this category of information systems as Composite Information Systems (CIS). Migrating from separate systems to a more fully integrated CIS environment is usually a difficult, expensive, and time-consuming process both due to technical and organizational realities. An evolutionary approach is presented in this paper to meet the challenge. The essence of this approach is captured in four CIS principles: (1) the separation of data from processing; (2) the use of flexible tools; (3) the use of interfaces that facilitate data conversion and communication between processing components and databases; and (4) the explicit recognition of the ClS environment. Based on these principles, we delineate five stages of evolution, which may co-exist: (1) separate systems; (2) virtual-driver; (3) logical separation; (4) physical separation; and (5) specialized functional engine. The opportunities for strategic uses of information technology in organizations are often blocked by the difficulties of getting from the current state to the desired situation. The evolutionary process presented in this article has been found to be effective in overcoming this problem.
Keywords: distributed databases; organizational information systems; strategic computing; systems development

Systems Planning for the Enterprise-wide Information Management Complex: The Architectural Approach - Targowski, Andrew S (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
An architectural approach is used to provide a framework for understanding the Enterprise-wide Information Management Complex (EWIMC). IMC is proposed as an emerging self-contained business process that interfaces with but remains separate from all other business elements, while providing unique services to those other elements. A generic model of EWIMC itself is presented that breaks down IMC into a set of systems federations, each functionally distinct from one another; each federation, in turn, is composed of more specific systems and each system its subsystems, and so on. Thus, a top-down, hierarchical approach is applied to the concept of IMC to provide a framework for understanding the complexities and interrelationships among its many pieces. The model is offered as a first step in developing a comprehensive overview of EWIMC to replace the numerous fragmented approaches offered in the past. An example of General Motors' architecture is presented. Finally, the System Planning Technique is presented as a tool for defining systems requirements.
Keywords: information systems architecture; systems planning; generic models of information systems

Semantic Model of Internal Controls in Database Design - De, Prabuddha; Sen, Arun (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
The paper attempts to model internal controls in an organization from a database perspective. It provides a three-level architecture to integrate data, process, and control level abstractions. A semantic formalism based on this architecture is presented.
Keywords: internal controls; data models; constraint specification

Capacity Expansion for Information Flow Distribution in Multi-Path Computer Communication Networks - Zwass, Vladimir; Veroy, Boris (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
In the distributed processing environment characteristic of the management information systems of today, a need to superimpose an additional information flow onto an existing computer communication network arises frequently. The situation may result from a company's expanding needs for communication over its private or a shared network, or because a new user company is joining an existing shared network. In order to accommodate the new information flow without negatively affecting the waiting times for the previously contracted communications, network capacity may have to be expanded. We present an algorithmic method for least-cost capacity expansion of a set of network paths preselected to carry the incremental information flows. Owing to the insights gained as a result of extensive computational experiments, we then provide a simplified technique applicable to a broad class of cases. Polynomial time complexity of the algorithms included in the presented methodology points to its practicality.
Keywords: distributed information systems; computer communication networks; network capacity expansion; multi-path networks

Exploratory Results of a Factor Analysis of Strategic Information: Implications for Strategic Systems Planning - Szewczak, Edward J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
The usefulness of strategic decision support systems (SDSSs) has been a highly discussed, yet under-investigated issue. This paper attempts to help fill the gap between available subjective/argumentative theory and the necessary empirical evidence to evaluate and implement existing claims and design methodologies. An empirical study is described that explicitly focused on the usefulness of information in a strategic decision-making context. Factor analysis was employed in the derivation of five orthogonal dimensions of the usefulness of strategic information. The results suggest that strategic systems planning [20] may be preferable to historical, traditional approaches to providing useful information to strategic decision makers in a SDSS context. A research agenda is discussed that suggests avenues for studying strategic systems planning in the context of various planning processes contributing to SDSS development, of knowledge-based SDSSs, and of strategic expert systems.
Keywords: strategic information; strategic systems planning

The Quality of User Documentation: An Instrument Validation - Torkzadeh, Gholamreza (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
User documentation is an important tool for communication. It enhances the value of an application to the user and, in turn, improves user satisfaction. The impact of user documentation is even more considerable since interest in end-user computing is booming. Yet, there are very few practical managerial tools for measuring the quality of user documentation. This article examines two alternative forms of an instrument for measuring user perceptions of the quality of user documentation. The reliability and validity of these instruments are examined. Using a survey of 618 end-users from 44 firms, the author cross validates this instrument, conducts a factor analysis, and assesses the construct validity of the instrument. Furthermore, the reliability and validity of the instrument is assessed by nature and type of application. The results indicate a strong support for the instrument. With these instruments, management can more easily monitor and control the condition of their firm's user documentation.
Keywords: documentation; user documentation; user satisfaction

Information Resource Management: A Metadata Perspective - March, Salvatore T; Kim, Young-Gul (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
While information is recognized as an important corporate resource, its management has not been accomplished to the extent of other major resources. A major reason for this condition is that the information resource is not as well defined as other resources. To manage any resource effectively, the nature of that resource must be well defined. In this article, we first propose a model for corporate data. This model represents the data definition or "metadata" for Information Resource Management (IRM). Through this metadata we define the "state" of the information resource. We characterize a set of dimensions for metadata and discuss its representation and management. Concepts from Information Resource Dictionary Systems (IRDS) are described as they support metadata management. We include IRDS contents, capabilities, and implementation issues. Finally, we assess the diverse impacts of metadata management on related Information System (IS) issues such as end-user computing, corporate is planning, information architecture development, and information system development.
Keywords: information resource management; data dictionary; database administration; data administration

Evolutionary Development of Information Systems - Orman, Levent V (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
Arguments are presented in support of the evolutionary development of information systems. The traditional analysis and design tools are shown to be inappropriate for the evolutionary development, and the requirements for such a development environment are determined. Three major tools are borrowed from the fields of artificial intelligence, programming languages, and database management, and combined to create an environment that meets these requirements. The resulting novel system architecture is described by using a university registration system.
Keywords: evolutionary development; system architecture; system life cycle; system design; development tools

Information System Verification and Validation during Requirement Analysis Using Petri Nets - Sakthivel, S; Tanniru, Mohan R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
Requirement analysis is the first step in the development of information systems, and its objective is to ensure that any proposed system meets the projected requirements of the user. As a part of this requirement analysis, an analyst is asked to verify that any proposed system is representationally accurate in deriving the needed information and to validate such a system against the time and resource requirements specified by the user. This article performs both the representational verification and dynamic performance validation by expressing the information system, current or proposed, in the form of a Petri Net and using its structural characteristics to perform a set of static and dynamic checks.
Keywords: verification of information systems; validation of information systems; system requirement analysis; Petri Nets; system development

Individual Differences and Decision-Making Using Various Levels of Aggregation of Information - Lederer, Albert L; Smith Jr, George L (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
This research investigated the effects of aggregation level on decision-making performance and confidence. The study made use of experienced territory managers as subjects. As part of their regular job responsibilities, they had all carried out a task closely resembling the one in this experiment. The research sought to identify patterns of decision-making suggesting that individual differences play an important role. With an average of 6.8 years of experience, 104 territory managers in a manufacturing firm planned the coming year's product distribution. Each manager received reports for two hypothetical territories that differed in their level of aggregation. Confidence in their plans was related to experience and to decision-making style, but not to preference. Decision-makers almost always preferred detailed data, while summary data appeared to better serve heuristic planners and detailed data better served analytic planners.
Keywords: cognitive style; aggregation of information; confidence in decision-making

Information Media and Source Patterns Across Management Levels: A Pilot Study - Jones, Jack William; Saunders, Carol S; McLeod Jr, Raymond (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
This paper reports a pilot study designed to investigate media and source patterns for managerial information systems across three hierarchical levels of management. Our basic hypothesis is that media and source patterns will differ by management level. Eight executives in a large energy company were used to investigate the hypothesis: three senior executives, three middle-level executives, and two lower-level executives.
Keywords: information media; use of management information systems

The Effects of Display Formats on Information Systems Design - Liberatore, Matthew J; Titus, George J; Dixon, Paul W (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
A field experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of differences in task, display, and viewer characteristics on interpretation accuracy, viewer preference, and subjects' utility ratings of the displays. Practicing engineering managers at Lockheed-Georgia company were the subjects. Display format influenced interpretation accuracy only through its interaction with task-related variables. Although improvement in interpretation accuracy occurred over time, no comparative advantage of graphs over tables was found. No clear viewer preferences for graphs or tables were expressed, except at the conclusion of the experiment, when tables were favored for finance-related reports. Tables were generally perceived to be more useful in answering interpretation accuracy questions, although the results were not as definitive in the detailed analysis. Personality type, as measured by field-independence/dependence, was unrelated to differences in interpretation accuracy and viewer preference.
Keywords: graphics in information systems; information media

The Effects of Modes of Information Presentation on Decision-Making: A Review and Meta-Analysis - Montazemi, A R; Wang, S (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1988)
This study investigates the impact of modes of information presentation on information dimensions. Twenty-four published studies were reviewed. The results of sixteen of these were cumulated by application of meta-analysis technique. The ensuing results demonstrate that the bar presentation format is slightly better than the tabular one in terms of information precision; however, the face chart is superior to the tabular format with respect to relevancy, and the multicolor presentation is more relevant than the monocolor. In addition, two factors of influence (moderators) were verified. First, personality, which is classified as field-dependent and field-independent, acts as a moderator between color and information relevancy. Second, when comparing line graphical presentations with tabular, task environment has a moderate effect on both timesaving and precision.
Keywords: information media; graphics in information systems

Organizational Crisis Management Systems: Planning for Intelligent Action - Nunamaker Jr, Jay F; Weber, E Sue; Chen, Minder (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
Intelligent behavior requires being able to acquire information and to use it to make and implement effective decisions. In exploring ways to help organizations function intelligently in crisis situations, a group decision support environment has been developed and a set of crisis planning tools designed. Intended to complement strategic planning systems, these tools are expected to help planners develop and communicate an understanding of high-priority issues so that intelligent decisions can be made and implemented during crises. The paper characterizes intelligent organizations, defines organizational crises, discusses the consequences of crises, and presents a crisis-management framework. Finally, the use of the tools is illustrated with a crisis planning case.
Keywords: organizational learning; collaborative knowledge work; organizational crises; crisis management systems

Toward the Design of Robust Information Systems - El Sawy, Omar A; Nanus, Burt (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
Current design approaches are not focused on yielding computer-based information systems which are robust to rapidly changing environments. The 1990s are bringing with them an increasing inter-organizational locus of information systems, a tighter coupling of information systems to strategic management, and an increasing turbulence of operational environments. In combination, these factors are making robustness under dynamic conditions a key effectiveness requirement of many large computer-based information systems. Coming from a strategic planning perspective, this paper explores the challenge of designing robust information systems and suggests some prescriptive guidelines for improving the process.
Keywords: robust information systems; information systems design methodology; futures research; information requirements analysis; information systems strategic planning; information systems maintenance; information systems evolution

Social Determinants of Information Systems Use - Robertson, David C (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
The social group of which an individual is a part will affect how that individual uses information systems (IS). The social group will affect how an information system is interpreted and used. The social group will also place pressures and demands on IS usage. A field study of this idea was conducted. The concept of structural equivalence, operationalized by blockmodeling, was used to measure the effect of the social group on individual information systems usage. The results of the field study show that structural equivalence is related to IS usage, but this relationship is different for different information systems. These results are believed to have implications for many important areas of is research such as the strategic use of IS, user involvement in the IS design process, and research on the impacts of IS.
Keywords: information system use; organizational role of information systems

Adopting Systems Development Methods: An Exploratory Study - Kozar, Kenneth A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
A general opinion is that systems personnel are unlikely adopters of new systems development methods. Thirty-five systems persons from eleven organizations who attended a seminar/workshop on a requirements defining method were surveyed three months after the seminar to determine whether they used the method and factors influencing usage. Factors about the potential adoptee, the current tasks assigned, and the organization and its existing methods were considered as predictors of usage. The study found adopters to be younger, to have spent less time in their organization and in systems work, not to have a current method that they would have to give up, to perceive themselves to be risk takers, and to be more optimistic about their ability to use the method and have it fit in their organization.
Keywords: systems development method; systems adoption; individual characteristics of MIS professionals

Organizational Support for Decision Support Systems - Watson, Hugh J; Lipp, Astrid; Jackson, Pamela Z; Dahmani, Abdelhafid; Fredenberger, William B (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
Fifty-five organizations in which decision support systems (DSS) are used were surveyed to determine how they are supporting DSS activity. The findings provide insights about the extent to which DSS activity is being supported, which organizational units are providing support, the types and frequency of support provided, the organizational units and management levels that receive support and how often it is provided, and the perceived quality of the support. Typically, DSS support is available through between one and four locations in an organization. Personnel working at different levels in their organizations and in different functional areas have distinct patterns of use of DSS support services.
Keywords: decision support systems; DSS support; organizing for decision support systems (DSS); human information processing

The Use of Critical Success Factors in Evaluation of Information Systems: A Case Study - Bergeron, Francois; Begin, Clermont (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
This paper discusses the application of the Critical Success Factor (CSF) method as a way of evaluating the information available for planning and control activities. Using a questionnaire in addition to individual interviews and group meetings to collect data on the Critical Success Factors, Rockart's method was successfully applied to assess the availability of critical information needed by the management of a multi-institutional health care arrangement. Results indicated large differences in the information needs of the management team evaluated. The added value of the work is the insights gained by using multiple methods within a general CSF concept. The CSF method is recommended to perform the evaluation of the information function in the context of evaluative research.
Keywords: critical success factors (CSF); MIS planning; information systems requirements; evaluative research

The Graduate MIS Course in the Schools and Colleges of Business - Gupta, Jatinder N D; Seeborg, Irmtraud S (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
A survey of AACSB Schools and Colleges of Business that offer graduate programs indicates that even though more schools are creating independent departments of management/computer information systems, the graduate MIS course is similar to the undergraduate MIS course in about half of the schools and a course later in the program (with a number of prerequisites) in about half of the schools. Due to this disparity in responding schools, the results are mixed. The topics covered by most schools have been covered in MIS courses for a number of years. More recent topics such as strategic uses of MIS, end-user computing, and artificial intelligence are foreseen for the future by some respondents, but they do not appear to have made inroads into the content of the graduate MIS course.
Keywords: MIS education; graduate MIS course

The Effect of Human-Computer Interchange Protocol on Decision Performance - Hale, David P; Kasper, George M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
The concept of a collaborative human-computer interchange was proposed almost thirty years ago. The goal of this paradigm is to design human-computer decision-making systems that think and process information at a level exceeding that of either the human or the computer alone. Technological and conceptual developments have made this holistic partnership increasingly possible. Moreover, recent discussions of human-computer collaborative work have highlighted the system performance advantages of this interchange. In this paper, the notion of human-computer interchange protocols is developed and the importance of these protocols to human-computer collaboration and system performance is argued. Based on data collected in a laboratory setting, empirical support for the proposed holistic effect of human-computer interchange protocols on system performance is provided. Decision performance is significantly improved by interchange protocols that encourage human-computer interaction during the problem-solving process.
Keywords: human-computer interchange protocols; collaborative human-computer systems; cooperative human-computer systems; human-computer interaction; human-computer interface design; decision performance; decision support systems

A Study of Staff Turnover, Acquisition, and Assimiliation and Their Impact on Software Development Cost and Schedule - Abdel-Hamid, Tarek K (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
In this article we investigate how staff turnover, acquisition, and assimilation rates affect software development cost and schedule. A system dynamics model of the software development process is employed as our experimentation vehicle. In addition to permitting less costly and less time-consuming experimentation, simulation-type models can provide useful insights into the causes behind the different behavior patterns observed. Our results indicate that staff turnover, acquisition, and assimilation rates can increase a project's cost and duration, by as much as 40 to 60 percent. This suggests that the three staffing variables are indeed critical for the successful development of software systems, as well as for the accurate estimation of software development cost and schedule.
Keywords: software development; human resource management; project staffing; software project management; software development cost and schedule

The Effects of Task Differences on the Work Satisfaction, Job Characteristics, and Role Perceptions of Programmer/Analysts - Goldstein, David K (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
A measure for classifying programmer/analysts based on the tasks they perform is proposed. A questionnaire, including the measure and measures of work satisfaction, job characteristics, role perceptions, and user interaction characteristics, was administered to over 250 subjects in a manufacturing firm. The results indicated that the task differences measure could be used to classify programmer/analysts into four groups—development/programmers, development/analysts, maintainers, and supporters. In addition, significant differences among the groups in skill variety, role ambiguity, and amount of user interaction were found. Implications of the results for those interested in redesigning the jobs of programmer/analysts are discussed.
Keywords: information systems personnel; job satisfaction; systems development; systems maintenance; human information processing

An Assessment of the Contingency Theory of Management Information Systems - Weill, Peter; Olson, Marorethe H (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
This paper explores the use of contingency theory in the field of Management Information Systems (MIS). The development of contingency theory in MIS is compared to the development of organization theory. The assumptions of fit, performance as a dependent variable, rational actors, and a deterministic model in both organizational research and MIS research are critiqued. The dominant influence of contingency theory is demonstrated through a review of empirical studies published in JMIS and MIS Quarterly. Of the 177 articles during the period studied, 59 percent were empirical and over 70 percent of these were judged to follow a contingency model. Based on our assessment of this research, we conclude that research in MIS has been hampered by the use of a naive meta-theory, conflicting empirical results with low explained variance, ill-defined concepts of performance and fit, and a narrow perspective of researchers. We give some recommendations for improving the theoretical basis of MIS, including advocating more subjectivist, less functional, and less deterministic research approaches. We also suggest a wider selection of methodologies including qualitative case studies, longitudinal studies, and ethnographic approaches. Finally, we conclude that significantly more theory-building is required in defining the MIS construct.
Keywords: discipline of MIS; contingency theory; organization theory; research methodology in MIS

A Computer Charging Mechanism for Revealing User Preferences within a Large Organization - Pick, Roger Alan; Whinston, Andrew B (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
The development of effective techniques for allocating computer resources is a major concern in computer center management. Most proposals, while based on concepts originally developed by economists, are based on the assumption that participants provide truthful information. Over the past twenty years, researchers in economics have explored truth-revealing mechanisms. We apply these ideas to charging for computing resources within an organization. The resulting mechanism provides an incentive for users to tell the system administrator their true valuation of a given configuration. Applications of this mechanism to both long-term and short-term situations are outlined. The long-term situation demonstrates how an appropriate computer configuration can be derived from information obtained from its future users. The short-term situation involves setting priorities among jobs.
Keywords: transfer pricing; queuing; truthful voting; computer charging; computing equipment selection

Security of Statistical Databases with an Output Perturbation Technique - Adam, Nabil R; Jones, Douglas H (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
A statistical database aims at providing users with statistics about the population while not compromising the confidentiality of the individuals whose data are included in the database. Threats to the database security range from issuing cleverly designed sequences of queries to using such sophisticated methods as regression analysis. In order to overcome this security problem, several solution methods have been suggested in the literature. These methods can be classified under four general approaches: conceptual modeling; query restriction; data perturbation; and output perturbation. These methods, however, can be easily compromised, or require excessive CPU and memory, or result in biased response to users. The purpose of this paper is to propose a new type of output perturbation method that may be very difficult to compromise and provides unbiased response. The method is based on recoiling of the data, the jackknifing concept, and an extension of the random sample queries method suggested by Denning [5]. A comparison of the proposed method and the modified random sample queries method (which is considered a viable alternative for security of statistical databases) is presented.
Keywords: database management; statistical databases; database security

Relationship of the Rank of Information Systems Executive to the Organizational Role and Planning Dimensions of Information Systems - Raghunathan, Bhanu; Raghunathan, T S (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
The organizational rank of the senior Information Systems (IS) officer has been suggested to influence the effectiveness of the organizational IS effort. As IS continues to gain increasing recognition as a key organizational system, a study of the various factors that contribute to its effectiveness should be particularly useful. This research explores the relationship between the reporting level of the senior IS executive and two specific aspects of IS, namely, IS organizational role and IS planning. The analysis is based on the responses of IS executives to a survey instrument. Results support the existence of significant linkages between the rank of the IS executive and the IS aspects addressed in the study. This suggests that the reporting level of the IS executive may be a key variable that management should focus on in efforts to increase the effectiveness of their information systems.
Keywords: rank of IS executive; IS organizational role; IS planning

Coordination of Information Systems Plans with Business Plans - Lederer, Albert L; Mendelow, Aubrey L (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
Keywords: information systems planning; alignment of MIS plans with business plans; strategic planning

Evidence to Support the Continuing Role of the Information Systems Department in Organizations - Janson, Marius A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
Keywords: management of MIS; strategy formulation; competitive information systems; end-user computing; information systems case studies

Building Large, Dynamic Hypertexts: How Do We Link Intelligently? - Carmel, Erran; McHenry, William K; Cohen, Yeshayahu (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
Keywords: hypertext; hyperbase; information retrieval systems; links in hypertexts; indexing of hypertexts

A Method for Database Requirements Collection - Tseng, Veronica P; Mannino, Michael V (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
Keywords: database requirements; database view modeling; end-user computing; form definition systems; database design

Effective Management of End-user Computing: A Total Organization Perspective - Brown, Carol V; Bostrom, Robert P (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
Keywords: end-user computing; organizational innovation; contingency models

The Information Center Career - Rainer Jr, R Kelly; Carr, Houston H; Snyder, Charles A; Frolick, Mark N (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
Keywords: end-user computing; information center; information systems personnel; career planning in MIS

Nick Experimentation: Selected Results Concerning Effectiveness of Meeting Support Technology - Ellis, Clarence A; Rein, Gail L; Jarvenpaa, Sirkka L (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
The Nick Summer Experiment was an empirical study undertaken to explore and increase the understanding of the use of prototype meeting support technology by software design teams working on high-level design problems. Three teams of designers (seven MCC researchers per team) were observed and videotaped while participating in 27 one-hour, face-to-face design meetings in both the electronic meeting room and in a conventional meeting room. The Nick support technologies explicitly aided the affective social meeting structures, as well as the rational task-oriented processes. Analysis of the experimental data revealed some gains in meeting effectiveness and quality from use of the Nick meeting support technologies. The "subchannel" (messaging facility on the electronic workstations) emerged as a potentially effective way for participants to attain more equality and to influence the direction of the meetings. The electronic blackboard helped to increase group focus and attention on completing the task.
Keywords: electronic meetings; decision room; electronic blackboard; electronic messaging

Electronic Meeting System Experience at IBM - Vogel, Douglas R; Nunamaker Jr, Jay F; Martz Jr, William Benjamin; Grohowski, Ronald; McGoff, Christopher (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
Electronic meeting systems (EMS) have been introduced inside IBM in a cooperative effort between IBM and the University of Arizona to address the demands of an increasingly competitive and turbulent business environment. This paper presents and integrates the results of two field studies intended to evaluate the implications of electronic meeting system use at IBM. The first study focused on session process and outcome effectiveness, efficiency, and user satisfaction at a single IBM site. The second study collected data on EMS tool use and facilitation approach within sessions at four IBM sites. The two studies are complementary in reflecting the impact of computer-based support on group process and outcome. Effectiveness, efficiency, and user satisfaction are generally enhanced independent of type of activity supported or perspective, e.g., participant, facilitator, or session initiator. Facilitation training is a critical requirement for successful integration and application of electronic meeting system software and procedures in the group processes this paper addresses.
Keywords: electronic meetings; decision room; group decision processes; facilitation of electronic meetings

A Framework to Support Managerial Activities Using Office Information Systems - Liu Sheng, Olivia R; Motiwalla, Luvai F; Nunamaker Jr, Jay F; Vogel, Douglas R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
Office systems have traditionally been effective in automating well-defined and structured office tasks that are performed by personnel who account for a minor share of the office payroll. To make an impact on office environments, office systems must be able to support effectively semi-structured or unstructured office tasks that are generally performed by managers and professionals. This paper provides a conceptual focus through a framework for analyzing the office functions of managers, and a technological focus and direction through a design and architecture of an Integrated Office Information System (IOIS) for implementing such a concept that supports the less structured activities of managers.
Keywords: office information systems; management with office information systems

Expert Systems and Their Impact on the Firm: The Effects of PlanPower Use on the Information Processing Capacity of the Financial Collaborative - Sviokla, John J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
Expert Systems (ESs) have the potential to make a competitive difference in industry, academia, and government, yet there is little knowledge of how to manage these complex software tools. New activity in the field is booming, as a result of civilian and government programs that are investing more time and money in ES development Early initiatives, aided by improvements in computer hardware and software, have successfully created ESs to rival human experts within some narrow problem domains. The study is guided by the notions of organizational programs as defined by March and Simon [3], and the information-processing capacity of the firm as defined by Galbraith [1,2] to organize, describe, and compare the effects of ES use across the site. It was clearly shown that, within the definition, the information-processing capacity of the PlanPower site did increase from pre-ES to post-ES. The interesting implication of the increased information processing capacity was that the firm (The Financial Collaborative) seemed to gobble up the capacity and create new issues and concerns. Instead of the task becoming more certain and more simple, as one might expect with increased information-processing capacity, the task mutated and the firm began to operate with a higher need for information-processing capacity. The ES seemed to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the user firm. The price of the benefits was an increased rigidity in the task. In considering ESs, a manager should be concerned not only with the ES itself, but with the process by which the ES is adapted, and the overall process of creating and using the ES. In addition, the manager needs to consider the effects of the ES on the uncertainty associated with the task and should consciously manage that uncertainty to foster the level of adaptation necessary to keep the ES alive and viable in the organization.
Keywords: expert systems; expert systems in financial planning; organizational impact

The Impact of Parallel and Neural Computing on Managerial Decision Making - Trippi, Robert; Turban, Efraim (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
Parallel processing has moved in recent years from a largely theoretical issue to the commercial arena. This paper discusses parallel, multiple CPU architectures, including neural computers, and assesses their potential contribution to managerial decision making.
Keywords: managerial decision making; parallel processing; neural networks

Motivating Strategic Alliance for Composite Information Systems: The Case of a Major Regional Hospital - Osborn, Charles S; Madnick, Stuart E; Wang, Y Richard (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
This paper explores the nature of strategic goals underlying composite information systems (CIS) and ways to increase their likelihood of success. It studies a major regional hospital and its relationship with its physicians as part of a case study for providing physicians and staff convenient interface to disparate hospital departments. This situation is a particularly appropriate as example, involving loosely coupled and interdependent relationships (e.g., the physicians can affiliate with any hospital they want). Three approaches to motivating strategic alliances are identified: bidirectional benefits, cooperative payoffs, and asymmetrical control. Examples illustrate how these approaches were used in the design and implementation of the hospital's CIS.
Keywords: strategic alliances; composite information systems; interorganizational information systems; information systems for competitive advantage

Application and Research Areas for Hypertext in Decision Support Systems - Minch, Robert P (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1989)
Review of decision support system (DSS) research and applications frameworks and literature review of hypertext research reveals many areas where further work may make a valuable contribution in the application of hypertext technology to DSS. These areas are discussed as they relate to user characteristics, decision and problem characteristics, situational and organizational factors, and technological factors. Some research topics that appear to be worthy of further investigation include hypertext's support of the human brain's hemispheric specialization, its isomorphism with generalized problem-solving paradigms such as the state-space approach, its potential to support collaborative work and group DSS, and many technological issues related to the appropriate content, structure, and representation of hypertext networks. In addition, hypertext may be used as a DSS research vehicle to simulate and study various user interface techniques and as a process tracing laboratory. Hypertext offers a great deal of promise as a powerful component of future DSS environments.
Keywords: hypertext; decision support systems; user interface

Organizational Context and Information Systems Success: A Contingency Approach - Raymond, Louis (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
Previous research suggests that organizational factors can be as important as individual factors for the success of information systems. This paper proposes a contingency approach relating selected organizational factors, namely organizational size, maturity, resources, time frame, and IS sophistication to user satisfaction and system usage. The model is tested through an empirical investigation of 34 small and medium-sized manufacturing firms. Data analysis results indicate that while organizational time frame and IS sophistication have a direct effect upon satisfaction and usage, the effect of size, maturity, and resources is mediated by IS sophistication.
Keywords: organizational context of MIS; information systems success; organization size; IS sophistication; organizational success factors

End-user Training and Computing Effectiveness in Public Agencies: An Empirical Study - Cronan, Timothy Paul; Douglas, David E (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
This study reports on the effectiveness of end-user computing (EUC) following an end-user training program in a public agency. An end-user training model based on research in EUC, information centers, and end-user training, was used as part of the EUC program. Over a two-year horizon, more than one hundred employees participated in the training program. As a result, approximately 90 application systems were developed with some 40 currently under development. Effectiveness measures resulting from an evaluation by end users and supervisors indicated that the training program and EUC strategy were effective. A 24 percent increase in productivity, a savings of approximately 7.6 hours per week, and a high degree of satisfaction resulted from the EUC program.
Keywords: end-user computing; information center; effectiveness of MIS; training; management of information systems

London's Big Bang: A Case Study of Information Technology, Competitive Impact, and Organizational Change - Clemons, Eric K; Weber, Bruce W (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
The London Stock Exchange's Big Bang on October 27, 1986, marked the arrival of sweeping and long-awaited deregulation. Numerous changes occurred simultaneously, including elimination of fixed brokerage commissions, a marked increase in the number of market participants, changes in the structure and ownership of trading firms, and, perhaps most importantly, swift movement of securities trading away from the floor of the Exchange, This remains the most rapid and complete regulatory reform of any market, and the most striking example to date of a regulatory event engineered to benefit the local financial industry. The transformation was accomplished in large part through the Exchange's implementation of a screen-based dealing system. Since the overhaul of its established securities trading practices, London's financial markets have undergone profound change while continuing to operate smoothly; a number of benefits have been realized.
Keywords: information systems and securities trading; strategic information systems; London's Big Bang; case study

Discourse Analysis for Knowledge Acquisition: The Coherence Method - Abdul-Gader, Abdulla H; Kozar, Kenneth A (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
Recently there has been a tremendous increase in the development of knowledge-based systems in organizations. The quality of these systems and the cost of their development are largely dependent on the validity and reliability of the techniques used to acquire an expert's knowledge. Knowledge acquisition is the process of extracting domain knowledge from experts and organizing this knowledge into a computer understandable form. In order to improve knowledge-based system performance and make these systems less costly to build, knowledge acquisition techniques must be improved. This paper presents a knowledge acquisition method to augment the existing unstructured elicitation techniques such as protocol analysis and interviews. The Coherence Method is based on AI planning theory [31] and coherence theory [21]. The authors' experience in applying this method to a knowledge-based systems development project is reported. The Coherence Method proved useful in facilitating the understanding of the experts' discourse, especially in early knowledge acquisition interviews. It provided the core knowledge that can guide subsequent knowledge elicitation techniques.
Keywords: knowledge-based systems; expert systems; knowledge acquisition; discourse analysis

Derived Relations with Exceptions: Decision Support Capabilities - Dattero, Ronald; Ramirez, Richard G; Choobineh, Joobin (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
Despite the widespread use of relational database management systems, their decision support capabilities have been limited. These limitations include: (1) very limited support for expression of general statements and exceptions, (2) limited capabilities for what-if analysis, and (3) problems with the way derived data is handled. This paper shows that additional power can be placed in relational database systems via a new construct called Derived Relations with Exceptions (DRES). DRES are a superset of relational views that provide greater decision support capabilities in that they handle exceptions to general rules and can operate in a hypothetical mode that provides an easier way to experiment with alternative scenarios in a what-if fashion. DRES are implemented by extending the SQL database language.
Keywords: decision support systems; relational databases; database view modeling; SQL

A Problem-solving Perspective on Systems Development - Cerveny, Robert P; Garrity, Edward J; Sanders, G Lawrence (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
This paper discusses systems development in the context of problem solving strategies. A theoretical basis for the two dominant problem-solving approaches (SDLC and prototyping) is presented along with the results of a field study of the effectiveness of the strategies in fourth-generation language environments. Results from the study indicate the appropriateness of a mixed development strategy contingent on system type. Implications for future research on systems development are also presented.
Keywords: systems development; prototyping; problem solving; cognitive science; fourth generation languages

Choice Models for the Evaluation and Selection of Software Packages - Anderson, Evan E (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
Microcomputer users are faced with an increasingly difficult choice problem in the evaluation and selection of software packages. For many reasons, users frequently must rely on expert evaluations of the technical functions and features of packages. This paper explores the extent to which multi-attribute choice models are capable of extracting the information content of performance ratings. Five choice models are applied to the expert ratings of software packages in the following areas: word processing, database management systems, and spreadsheet and financial planning. The evaluations and selections made under each model are compared for each software type, and guidelines are suggested for choosing between choice strategies for software evaluation.
Keywords: software selection; choice models; decision theory

MAC--Philadelphia National Bank's Strategic Venture in Shared ATM Networks - Clemons, Eric K (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
Philadelphia National Bank (PNB) lunched MAC, its shared Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) network service, in response to a threat from Girard. Girard had introduced George, the first major ATM offering in Philadelphia, and hoped it would provide competitive advantage in retail banking; PNB used MAC to counter this threat. Despite Girard's scale advantage and first-mover effects, PNB was able to attract enough banks to MAC for MAC to dominate and eventually merge with or acquire all other ATM networks in Pennsylvania. Several factors explain why PNB succeeded with MAC, and why the ownership structure of MAC is unique among the major shared ATM networks in the U.S. Among these, timing is key—MAC emerged before the other shared ATM networks, and before the critical importance of ATM service was evident. Contrasting the structure of ATM networks with other electronic distribution channels, and comparing the profitability of providing each, offers valuable insight into the power associated with the channel provider under different conditions.
Keywords: information systems for competitive advantage; information technology in banking; automatic teller machine (ATM) networks; case study

In Search of Sustainability: Reaping Long-term Advantage from Investments in Information Technology - Feeny, David F; Ives, Blake (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
We have raised executive management's awareness, and expectations of the strategic role of information systems technology. Teams of managers are commonly involved in workshops or planning processes designed to identify such applications. Conceptual frameworks to assist in such "idea-generation" sessions are widely cited in the literature and used in practice. Less well understood is the process used to evaluate the sustainability of proposed applications. We present a framework for evaluating sustainability based on the competitor's anticipated response time, differences among competitors, and the potential of the application to preempt competitive responses. Such an analysis is proposed as an evaluation tool for intended strategic applications of information technology.
Keywords: information systems for competitive advantage; sustaining competitive advantage; strategic IT applications

Path Analysis of the Relationship between Competitive Strategy, Information Technology, and Financial Performance - Floyd, Steven W; Wooldridge, Bill (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
This study evaluates the impact of competitive strategy on information technology (IT) and of IT on organizational performance. In addition, the research model incorporates indirect performance effects from strategy and IT alignment. Data is drawn from the survey responses of 127 banks and interviews with 68 bank CEOs. Path analysis separates direct, indirect, and spurious effects. Interview data support the quantitative analysis. The results lend statistical support to the strategy--IT relationship described in case studies, and in addition, provide an explanation for inconsistent findings in previous IT performance research.
Keywords: information systems for competitive advantage; information technology and corporate performance; alignment of IT and business strategy

Relationships between Organizational and Information Systems Objectives: Some Empirical Evidence - Zviran, Moshe (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
An empirical investigation of some relationships between organizational objectives and information systems (IS) objectives is reported. The major findings are that IS objectives are associated with organizational objectives and there is a correspondence between each organizational objective and specific IS objectives. These relationships support normative approaches to linking IS objectives to those of the organization. They can be used to formulate an operationally feasible approach that can help organizations determine their IS objectives according to their organizational objectives.
Keywords: information systems planning; strategic planning; information systems objectives; organizational objectives

Using Two Different Electronic Meeting System Tools for the Same Task: An Experimental Comparison - Easton, George K; George, Joey F; Nunamaker Jr, Jay F; Pendergast, Mark O (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
Various aspects of the design and use of Electronic Meeting Systems (EMS) have been investigated in laboratory and field studies, but until now no one has systematically investigated the role of EMS software on group performance. The current study compares two different EMS software tools in a controlled experiment. Dependent variables are decision quality, number of unique alternatives generated, satisfaction, and consensus. The study found that one software tool produced better quality solutions to a combination creativity and intellective task, but the other helped generate more unique alternatives. Each tool worked best on the task for which it was designed. The findings support the authors' premise that there should be a match between the EMS software tool and the task to be performed. The findings have several implications for the design of EMS software.
Keywords: electronic meeting systems; group decision support systems; software tools; group performance

An Agent for Intelligent Model Management - Liu, John I C; Yun, David Y Y; Klein, Gary (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
Decision Support Systems (DSS) and Expert Systems (ES) are both aimed at improving decision making. Current DSS usually concentrate on quantitative models while ES emphasize logic and reasoning. In this paper, we review previous ES approaches used by DSS to handle decision models. We propose an extension to such systems, an Agent for Intelligent Model Management (AIMM), as an interface between DSS and the users. AIMM utilizes a combination of ES knowledge representations and reasoning mechanisms to make a wide variety of models available to decision makers so that they may apply these models without becoming involved in technical or procedural aspects of implementation. A prototype of the system for financial problems is described.
Keywords: expert systems; intelligent agents; decision support systems; model management systems

Knowledge Acquisition Using Structured Interviewing: An Empirical Investigation - Agarwal, Ritu; Tanniru, Mohan R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
The knowledge acquisition problem endures as a bottleneck in the construction of expert system knowledge bases. Despite the recent proliferation of techniques and the availability of more sophisticated methods for this task, the interview technique continues to be widely used, especially in business domains. This paper reports the results of an experiment conducted to compare the unstructured knowledge acquisition interview with a specific type of structured knowledge acquisition interview. Structure for the interview was provided by a domain model of the business decision-making activity that attempted to capture the subjective and qualitative aspects of decision making. Senior managers from industry served as the subjects in the experiment. The interview technique was evaluated along efficiency and effectiveness dimensions. Results indicate improved performance with the structured interviewing method.
Keywords: expert systems; knowledge acquisition; structured interviewing

Strategic Information Technology Investments: Guidelines for Decision Making - Clemons, Eric K; Weber, Bruce W (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
As the strategic importance of information technology (IT) has increased, the decision of where and when to allocate resources to IT programs has become more risky and more difficult. Executives are tempted by the opportunities for strategic impact, but struggle with the massive expenditures and uncertainties involved. Evaluating the opportunity afforded by a system and judging its strategic impact in advance have proven difficult, and even when analyses are performed well, they are frequently done on an ad hoc basis. IT can confer advantage under appropriate conditions, and equally important, even when it fails to confer advantage, it may still prove crucial. Both concepts--competitive advantage and strategic necessity--confound traditional financial analysis. We offer seven principles on which to base an evaluation of a strategic IT venture. Although we have not performed a statistically validating study, these principles are expressed as guidelines we believe to be true, based on experience. The guidelines range from modeling the investment decision, through managing risk, to preparing for unanticipated upside and downside implications.
Keywords: information systems for competitive advantage; investment in information systems; risk assessment for information system projects

Measuring Gains in Operational Efficiency from Information Technology: A Study of the Positran Deployment at Hardee's Inc - Banker, Rajiv D; Kauffman, Robert J; Morey, Richard C (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
This paper presents a new approach to measuring the input productivity gains from information technology (IT) in complex managerial environments. The approach is illustrated in the context of a study of a pilot deployment at Hardee's Inc. of a new cash register point-of-sale and order-coordination technology called "Positran." The method employs data envelopment analysis (DEA) and nonparametric production frontier hypothesis testing to determine whether the performance of restaurants that have deployed Positran is better, on average, than for those that have not. The design of the study is of special interest, because it approximates a controlled experiment. Our results show that Positran helped to reduce input materials costs, since restaurants that deployed the technology were less likely to be inefficient. It is further possible to characterize the class of restaurants for which the relationship holds. Operational efficiency measures such as the ones we have developed provide managers with the opportunity to implement deployment strategies for new ITS in order to maximize value.
Keywords: measuring value of information systems; operational efficiency; productivity gains due to information systems

A Microeconomic Approach to the Measurement of Information Technology Value - Alpar, Paul; Kim, Moshe (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
The problem of measuring the impact of information technology on economic performance at the business unit or enterprise level is receiving increased attention. We develop a methodology based on the microeconomic theory of production and apply the model to data from the banking industry. In addition, we compare our methodology to approaches based on key ratios of information technology deployment. Both procedures are applied to the same set of data. The results show that reasoning about information technology value based on key ratios may be misleading, especially when the figures are only osculated for a cross-section of data.
Keywords: measurement of information technology value; production in commercial and retail banking; cost function; key ratios of firm performance

Dispersed Group Decision Making Using Nonsimultaneous Computer Conferencing: A Report of Research - Smith, Jill Y; Vanecek, Michael T (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
A quasi-experiment was conducted in the field to compare the decision-making process for groups using a nonsimultaneous computer conferencing (NCC) system with similar groups using face-to-face (FTF) communication. Groups of five participants performed group decision making using a general knowledge task. Group members searched for the solution by sharing information and generating alternatives. The participants were professional workers from several different organizations. The results of the study suggest that groups using the NCC system were significantly less effective than FTF groups in solving the problem. NCCs shared less information, were less comprehensive in considering all aspects of the decision-making task, and made less progress toward the perceived decision goal.
Keywords: group decision support systems; computer conferencing; nonsimultaneous computer conferencing; teleconferencing; task-oriented decision making; interpersonal communication

The Effect of Training Techniques and Personal Characteristics on Training End Users of Information Systems - Davis, Donald L; Davis, Donna F (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
End-user training is considered to be one of the top ten issues for management information systems management in the 1980s. Central to addressing end-user training is the appropriate training method for use to secure the most efficient and effective results. This study explored, by experimental means, the two extremes of training techniques: the lecture method with a trainer, and the self-study method. Also, the study examined the effect of end-user personal characteristics on end-user learning performance in the training environments. The results of the study provided some guidelines for organizations pursuing end-user training, and suggestions for additional study.
Keywords: end-user training; human information processing; end-user characteristics; end-user computing

Maintaining Remote Decision Support Databases - Diehr, George; Saharia, Aditya N; Chao, David (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
This research describes and analyzes schemes for managing decision support databases that are extracted from a central database and "downloaded" to personal workstations. Unlike a (true) distributed database system, where updates are propagated to maintain consistency, these remote "snapshots" are updated only periodically ("refreshed") upon command of the remote workstation user. This approach to data management has many of the same advantages of a distributed database over a centralized database (e.g., reduced communication costs, improved response time for retrievals, and reduction in contention), but it avoids the high overhead for concurrency control associated with updating in a distributed database. The added cost is in reduced data consistency. The schemes analyzed include full regeneration, the scheme used by System R*, and two new schemes. One new scheme--called modified regeneration--is a variation on simple full regeneration of the snapshot, but transmits only relevant changes to the snapshot. The other new scheme uses a difference table of relevant updates. Algorithm descriptions, models of processing and communication costs, analytical and numerical comparison of performance, and qualitative evaluation are included. Our conclusions are that the difference-table approach is the most robust scheme; the System R* scheme has lowest cost for only rather limited environments; and the modified-regeneration scheme is attractive due to its simplicity and flexibility. The results and models presented here could be used by a DBMS "refresh optimizer" to determine the best scheme to employ as a function of refresh frequency, update rate, and various processing and communication cost parameters.
Keywords: decision support systems; distributed databases; database snapshots; consistency in distributed databases

A Longitudinal Study of the Impact of Group Decision Support Systems on Group Development - Chidambaram, Laku; Bostrom, Robert P; Wynne, Bayard E (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
This paper reports on a study aimed at integrating an important but neglected behavioral issue--group development--into group decision support systems (GDSS) research. Group development is based on the fact that most groups have a past and a future, and this affects group outcomes. However, most GDSS studies have investigated only a single group session. This study examined the behavior of groups using a GDSS over multiple sessions. The study reported in this paper specifically examined the following two questions: (1) does computer support affect the development of decision-making groups? and (2) do the patterns of development differ over time between computer-supported and manual groups? These two questions were studied using a two-factorial repeated measures research design. Results showed significant differences in development patterns between computer-supported groups and manual groups in terms of conflict management and degree of cohesiveness. After adapting to GDSS, computer-supported groups displayed more productive conflict management and higher group cohesiveness than manual groups.
Keywords: group decision support systems; group behavior; group development

The Strategic Business Objectives Method for Guiding Executive Information Systems Development - Volonino, Linda; Watson, Hugh J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
Many organizations are moving forward with the development of an executive information system (EIS). Based on the experiences of other organizations, there are guidelines that can be followed when creating an EIS. The strategic business objectives methodology corresponds with these guidelines and involves a six-step process: (1) the organization's strategic business objectives are identified; (2) the business processes that are critical to the strategic business objectives are identified; (3) priorities are assigned to the strategic business objectives, and as a consequence, to the critical business processes; (4) information needed to support the critical business processes is defined; (5) information linkages among business processes are identified; and (6) a plan for a modular EIS development, implementation, and evolution is developed. Fisher-Price used a similar methodology when developing its EIS, and this has helped Fisher-Price become more market oriented.
Keywords: executive information systems; systems development method; systems analysis and design

The Object-Oriented Entity-Relationship Model (OOERM) - Gorman, Kevin; Choobineh, Joobin (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
The Object-Oriented Entity-Relationship Model (OOERM) and its associated diagramming technique (OOERD) are presented as a natural extension to the ER approach for modeling the dynamics of entity classes. In addition to modeling static properties, OOERM incorporates concepts from the object-oriented programming (OOP) paradigm to model operational properties of entities. Relationships among entities are used in message passing to allow an entity to access the attributes and operations of other related entities. An OOERD is a graphical abstraction of an underlying OOERM scheme description that is used to depict the dynamics of message passing among entities. The synergy between OOP and ER concepts is also discussed. The syntax and semantics of the OOERM language are informally presented, along with the graphic notations and icons of the OOERD. Structural and operational modeling in OOERM is illustrated through examples.
Keywords: entity-relationship model; object-oriented programming; structure and dynamic modeling

Technology-Process Fit: Perspectives on Achieving Prototyping Effectiveness - Cooprider, Jay G; Henderson, John C (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
Prototyping has received a great deal of attention as an important design methodology. Current support technologies for prototyping environments are typically intended to increase the efficiency of the individual system builder. We propose a broader perspective for assessing the impact of support technology on prototyping processes. In developing this perspective, we present frameworks for prototyping processes, support technologies, and development performance. Prototyping is characterized from the behavioral perspectives of individual, social, and organizational processes--each of which must be considered in assessing impacts. Support technology is characterized by production, coordination, and organizational dimensions, each affecting prototyping processes and performance in unique ways. To assess the impacts of the process-technology linkages, measures are suggested for evaluating prototyping processes and products from task, social, and business perspectives. It is proposed that the primary determinant of performance impact is the fit between the prototyping processes and the support technology used. By combining a functional model of support technology with behavioral perspectives of the prototyping process, a better understanding of the impacts of technology on prototyping effectiveness is obtained.
Keywords: prototyping; software development processes; computer-aided software engineering (CASE); evaluation of information systems performance

Systems Development in Information Systems Research - Nunamaker Jr, Jay F; Chen, Minder; Purdin, Titus D M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
In this paper, the use of systems development as a methodology in information systems (is) research is described and defended. A framework to explain the nature of systems development as a research methodology in is research is proposed. Use of this methodology in the engineering field in general is compared with its use specifically in computer science and computer engineering. An integrated program for conducting IS research that incorporates theory building, systems development, experimentation, and observation is proposed. Progress in several application domains is reviewed to provide a basis upon which to argue that systems development is a valid research methodology. A systems development research process is presented from a methodological perspective. Software engineering, which is the basic method of applying the systems development research methodology, is then discussed. It is the authors' belief that systems development and other research methodologies are complementary and that an integrated multi-dimensional and multimethodological approach will generate fruitful is research results. The premise is that research contributions can result from systems development, experimentation, observation, and performance testing of the systems under development and that all of these research approaches are needed to investigate different aspects of the research question.
Keywords: systems development; research methodologies; software engineering

A Comparison of Laboratory and Field Research in the Study of Electronic Meeting Systems - Dennis, Alan R; Nunamaker Jr, Jay F; Vogel, Douglas R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1990)
Research into the use of Electronic Meeting Systems (EMS) has rapidly increased over the past few years. However, EMS laboratory experiments have often drawn very different conclusions about the effects of EMS use than have EMS field studies--conclusions that at first appear inconsistent. By examining the differences in the design of prior EMS studies, we attempt to better understand the factors that affect the use of EMS technology. It is our contention that these differences in findings are not inconsistent, but rather they reflect different situations that researchers have studied. We identify 24 potentially important differences in organizational contexts, group characteristics, tasks, and EMS environments. In planning future research, EMS researchers need to make explicit design decisions for each of these aspects, and to consider how those choices may affect research results. An analysis of these differences suggests several approaches to enhance the design of future laboratory experiments and field studies.
Keywords: electronic meeting systems; decision support systems; research methodologies

Globalization and Information Management Strategies - Karimi, Jahangir; Konsynski, Benn R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
Recent globalization initiatives have encouraged firms to consider new organizational strategies and to change their coordination and control systems, management processes, and organization structures, leveraging new technologies. To compete effectively, at home or globally, firms often coordinate their activities in the world markets. Coordination has become a key to competitive advantage. Market and product innovation often involves coordination and partnership across a diverse set of organizational and geographically dispersed entities. What is often lacking for many global finns is a clear strategy for alignment in the evolution of information technology (IT) architecture and the evolving global business strategy. An understanding of administrative options that are available to the general manager in a global environment is important in the derivation of a strategy for the information technology infrastructure. This paper discusses issues that confront the senior executive regarding the evolution of control and organizational structures and the associated information technology management strategy.
Keywords: globalization; organizational strategies and structures; control and coordination; global information systems management; information systems architecture

Identification of Key International Information Systems Issues in U.S.-Based Multinational Corporations - Deans, P Candace; Karwan, Kirk R; Goslar, Martin D; Ricks, David A; Toyne, Brian (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
The transfer and management of information systems (IS) technology present a significant challenge to multinational corporations (MNCS). Very few studies have investigated the managerial concerns and issues that confront IS executives in an international context. This paper presents the empirical results of a two-phase study designed to identify arid prioritize important international information systems issues in U.S.-based MNCs. The findings are compared to those reported in the earlier domestic MIS issues studies. The study reported here (a) identifies a number of international IS issues unique to multinational corporations; (b) emphasizes that top-rated international Is concerns are a mixture of managerial and technical issues, much like the domestic issues studies of the 1980s; (c) concludes that multinational service and manufacturing firms perceive the importance of international IS issues differently; and (d) demonstrates, for manufacturing MNCs, that the level of international involvement does impact on how IS issues are perceived.
Keywords: key MIS issues; multinational corporations; international business; information systems management

Adoption Patterns and Attitudinal Development in Computer-Supported Meetings: An Exploratory Study with SAMM - Zigurs, Ilze; DeSanctis, Gerardine; Billingsley, Julie (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
To permit exploration of the development of attitudes in a group decision support system environment, eight groups of four and five persons each met in a computer-supported conference room over a period of two months. Each group addressed two strategic planning tasks, meeting for a total of eight two-hour sessions. The computer support provided was Software-Aided Meeting Management (SAMM), a system designed to support common group needs such as problem identification, alternatives generation, and alternatives evaluation. Groups were permitted to use or not use SAMM, according to their own perceived needs. Members' attitudes toward the group decision process and their perceptions of meeting quality were assessed after each meeting. As part of an academic course in which they were enrolled, the groups were required to submit a detailed report of their plans for each task; the plans were evaluated by the course instructor. Results suggested two patterns of adoption of SAMM: (1) groups that accepted the technology and used it throughout their meetings, and (2) groups that discarded the technology and ceased to use it. This paper discusses attitudinal development in these two types of groups and explores the relationship between attitudes and the quality of group planning in the SAMM environment.
Keywords: group decision support systems; electronic meeting systems; decision support systems; group attitudes; group interaction process

Justifying Investments in New Information Technologies - Dos Santos, Brian L (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
Dealing with technological advances has been and continues to be a key facet of an information systems (IS) manager's job as new information technologies continue to be introduced at a rapid rate. Among the many problems that new technologies present, one of the first and an extremely important problem that an IS manager must deal with is an economic one: should the firm invest in a project involving the new technology? Traditional capital budgeting approaches do not adequately answer this question. Consequently, they are seldom used. Instead, investments in new IT projects are based upon "gut feel" or "intuition," rather than hard evidence. A major portion of the value of new IT projects accrues from future projects that use the technology. Few benefits are obtained from the initial project. Problems in trying to capture these benefits using traditional capital budgeting approaches are discussed here and an alternative approach to valuing new IT investments is present. This approach is based upon the assertion that future investment in projects that use the new IT are optional. Treating future investments as optional can greatly increase the pre-investment estimated value of a new IT project. In addition, the effects of technological characteristics and business and environmental conditions on the value of new IT investments are discussed.
Keywords: information technology; information systems; cost-benefit analysis; investment justification; evaluation; financial analysis

Should 'Personal' Computers Be Personally Allocated? - Gogan, Jams L (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
This paper reports on a field study examining the effects of different levels of PC availability on usage by auditors working in two large public accounting firms. Respondents' tasks and information-processing tools were held reasonably constant, permitting an examination of the effect of the independent variable, microcomputer availability. Substantial support was found for the hypothesis that greater PC availability is with a greater amount of PC use, which was measured as self-reported hours of use per month and usage supporting 32 auditing tasks in three task categories. The study contributes to the theory of information source availability. The results suggest that future studies of end-user computing should account for the substantial effect of information-processing tools available.
Keywords: end-user computing; personal computing; user behavior; information-processing tool availability

Stress Dynamics of Information Systems Managers: A Contingency Model - Li, Eldon Y; Sham, Abraham B (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
A field study of 109 information systems (IS) managers explores the relationship among organizational characteristics, job satisfaction, and work stress. The results indicate that work overload is the major source of perceived IS work stress, followed by role conflict, job-induced anxiety, and then role ambiguity. Four organizational contextual factors—IS climate, clarity and sharing of organizational mission, quality of work life, and flexibility of organizational processes—were found to influence significantly work stress and job satisfaction as perceived by IS managers. As expected, job satisfaction was significantly related to Is work stress while IS technological sophistication was not related to IS stress or job satisfaction factors. Contrary to predictions, neither the clarity and awareness of organizational policies nor the quality of IS resources were found to have impact on any IS stressor.
Keywords: information systems managers; organizational characteristics; job satisfaction; work stress; information systems characteristics

Supporting the Search for Competitive Advantage - Dennis, Alan R; Nunamaker Jr, Jay F; Paranka, David (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
Managers are beginning to realize that the search for opportunities to create competitive advantage should be included as one part of the overall strategic planning process. Since the search for competitive advantage is often undertaken by large groups of managers drawn from many departments and organizational levels within the firm, recent developments in information technology to support group work may be useful. In this paper, we examine the ability of this technology to support the search for competitive advantage. Building on prior research on competitive advantage and group processes, we propose a three-stage process to guide the search for competitive advantage, describe an information system to support this process, and examine the experiences of five groups from three firms that have used this system to support this process. In general, the experiences of these groups suggest that this technology can be useful in supporting the search for competitive advantage.
Keywords: information systems for competitive advantage; electronic meeting systems; group decision support systems; strategic management; strategic planning

Delegation Technologies: Environmental Scanning with Intelligent Agents - Elofson, Gregg; Konsynski, Benn (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
Identification and evaluation of relevant trends and patterns are critical steps in an organization's business environment monitoring. Not surprisingly, the "experts" that perform this evaluation are seldom skilled in all the disciplines necessary to accomplish a thorough evaluation of the environmental indicators. While one expert may be skilled at recognizing the potential for political turmoil in a foreign nation, another at Motorola is skilled at recognizing how Japanese government deregulation is meant to complement the development of new products. Moreover, these experts often benefit from each other's skills and knowledge in assessing activity in the organization's environment. Often the interchange among variously skilled analysts becomes a distributed problem-solving activity that creates the high-quality, interdisciplinary analysis essential for an effective environmental monitoring activity. Problems in the environmental monitoring process often occur when a particular expertise, an agent in the problem-solving network, is unavailable, and knowledge from that domain does not play a role in the analysis. The focus of this paper is on the distribution of expertise and the sharing of knowledge in the critical process of environmental monitoring. A technical approach is adapted in this effort—an architecture and a prototype of "delegation technologies" are described that provide the capability of capturing, organizing, and distributing knowledge that may be used by experts in classifying patterns of qualitative indicators in the business environment. The redistribution of responsibilities through the delegation to, and coordination of, intelligent agents is examined.
Keywords: blackboard model; delegation technology; environmental scanning

Testing a Causal Model of End-User Application Effectiveness - Amoroso, Donald L; Cheney, Paul H (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
The purpose of this exploratory research was empirically to examine several logical relationships between key variables in order to create a causal model of end-user application effectiveness. To test the hypotheses, a survey-based field study was conducted in forty large organizations with a total of 506 usable responses. The data were analyzed using the Partial Least Squares (PLS) multivariate path analysis statistical technique. The preliminary empirical evidence provides general support for most of the key relationships contained in the model. Both the model based on the original sample and the validation of that model, based on the holdback sample, had good overall fits to the data. Of the important contributions, the end-users' motivation to develop new applications was found to be the most significant, showing the strongest positive path coefficient with application utilization. Perceived organizational support of EUC was found to be indirectly related to improved end-user information satisfaction and application utilization. Given a limited set of organizational resources, we suggest that managers invest time and money in improving organizational support of EUC where the immediate payoff may not be readily evident.
Keywords: end-user computing; application development; information system effectiveness; user satisfaction; application utilization; partial least squares (PLS) modeling

A Model for Evaluating Information Center Success - Magal, Simha R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
With the growing amount of resources consumed by end-user computing (EUC), its support organization, the information center (IC), is under increasing pressure to justify its existence. This study proposes an instrument and a model for evaluating IC success, based on the user satisfaction construct. Three dimensions of satisfaction are identified: Quality of IC Services, Quality of User-developed Applications (UDA), and User Self-sufficiency. Five hypotheses concerning the relationship among these dimensions and IC success are proposed. The instrument and the model are empirically tested. There is strong evidence of the validity of the instrument. Results indicate that the three dimensions are good predictors of IC success. All of the hypotheses were supported to varying degrees.
Keywords: end-user computing; information center; evaluation; user satisfaction

The Utilization of Information Systems Technology in State Financial Management: An Empirical Assessment - Stevens, John M; Cahill, Anthony G; Laplante, Josephine M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
Many of the budgets of state governments are larger than those of a number of Fortune 500 companies. Budgeting offices in the executive branches of state governments are increasingly utilizing a wide variety of information systems technologies to manage and track funds, engage in financial planning, and undertake sophisticated financial analysis. These offices are the "nerve centers" for financial planning, evaluation, and management of funds for state-level programs and policies. This report explores two distinct issues within the context of technology and management in state budgeting offices. The first is an examination of the role that technology plays in the organizational structures and practices of these offices. In this regard, the thirty-eight budgeting offices in the sample demonstrated a comprehensive pattern of information systems use that compares favorably with technology use in other levels of government and reflects the multiple roles that public managers in these offices must play. The second issue is an assessment of the association between environmental, organizational, and technological factors, and the adoption and utilization of information systems technology. Surrogate variables for each of the three theoretical factors were found to be associated with increased adoption and use of technology in the offices surveyed. An argument is made for a theoretical perspective on the adoption and utilization of technology that attempts to integrate each of these three perspectives.
Keywords: government finance; public sector

Risk Analysis for Information Technology - Rainer Jr, R Kelly; Snyder, Charles A; Carr, Houston H (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
As Information Technology (IT) has become increasingly important to the competitive position of firms, managers have grown more sensitive to their organization's overall IT risk management. Recent publicity concerning losses incurred by companies because of problems with their sophisticated information systems has focused attention on the importance of these systems to the organization. In an attempt to minimize or avoid such losses, managers are employing various qualitative and quantitative risk analysis methodologies. The risk analysis literature, however, suggests that these managers typically utilize a single methodology, not a combination of methodologies. This paper proposes a risk analysis process that employs a combination of qualitative and quantitative methodologies. This process should provide managers with a better approximation of their organization's overall information technology risk posture. Practicing managers can use this proposed process as a guideline in formulating new risk analysis procedures and/or evaluating their current risk analysis procedures.
Keywords: computer security; MIS risk analysis; risk management

A Contingency Model of DSS Development Methodology - Arinzn, Bay (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
Decision Support Systems (DSS) are now an established part of the information systems mainstream, both in research and in practice. The DSS development approach differs from traditional systems development not only with regard to its associated paradigms and orientation, but also in the methods of requirements analysis it employs. This paper surveys the major methodologies used for DSS development. It analyzes them by structure, paradigm, and orientation, and discusses their underlying assumptions. A research model is then developed and used to relate the functions of DSS methodology to decision-making environments and the relevant processes within them. Finally, a contingency theory is presented to show how each of the surveyed methodologies reduces the lack of structure in the decision-making environment, and bow this may be used by DSS developers for selecting a DSS methodology. Other components of the research model are discussed, to identify further prerequisites for improved understanding of the DSS role and application.
Keywords: decision support systems; DSS development methodologies; DSS requirements analysis

The Implications of Declining Enrollments in Undergraduate CIS Programs in the United States - Cale Jr, Edward G; Mawhinney, Charles H; Callaghan, David R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
A shortage of qualified entry-level computer information systems (CIS) personnel is beginning to occur as a result of the recent decline in student interest in computer-related careers. This paper discusses the impending shortage, its implications, and actions that can be taken to reverse this development.
Keywords: MIS education; MIS employment projections; MIS careers; computer personnel

The Role of Metaphors in Strategic Information Systems Planning - Mason, Robert M (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
This paper posits that (1) metaphors perform a crucial role in enacting strategy and linking strategic thinking with IT planning; (2) the war metaphor, which underlies many previous discussions of strategic information systems (SIS) is inadequate, possibly obsolete, in today's environment, and the shift away from this metaphor in the past few years is evidence of this; (3) other metaphors offer potentially more useful foundations for strategic thinking and SIS planning in today's world than the war metaphor; and (4) explicit articulation and exploration of alternative metaphors help identify strategic opportunities for information technology (IT) applications, designing SIS for global enterprises, and formulating research on SIS issues. This paper outlines these arguments and identifies desirable characteristics of metaphors, and discusses alternative metaphors of the organization as: an adapting organism, city-state, participant in organized team sports, an expression of philosophy, and expression of economic forces. The paper concludes with suggestions for research on the use of metaphor in strategy formulation and IT planning.
Keywords: strategic information systems; strategic MIS planning

Information Links and Electronic Marketplaces: The Role of Interorganizational Information Systems in Vertical Markets - Bakos, J Yannis (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
Interorganizational information systems—i.e., systems spanning more than a single organization—are proliferating as companies become aware of the potential of these systems to affect interorganizational interactions in terms of economic efficiency and strategic conduct. This new technology can have a far-reaching impact on the structure of entire industries. This article identifies two types of interorganizational information systems: information links and electronic markets. It then explores how economic models can be employed to study the implications of information links for the coordination of individual organizations with their customers and their suppliers, and the implications of electronic market systems for efficiency and competition in vertical markets. Finally, the strategic significance of interorganizational systems is addressed, and certain potential long-term impacts on the structure of markets, industries, and organizations are discussed.
Keywords: electronic markets; information links; intercorporate coordination; interorganizational information systems; strategic information systems

Information Technology at Rosenbluth Travel: Competitive Advantage in a Rapidly Growing Global Service Company - Clemons, Eric K; Row, Michael C (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
Over the past ten years, Rosenbluth Travel has grown from a regional travel agency with $40 million in annual sales to one of the five largest travel agencies in the United States, with sales of $1.3 billion. Their strategy was based on exploiting the structural changes initiated by airline deregulation in 1978, including growth of the corporate travel market and increasing economies of scale leading to consolidation. Information technology (IT) was a fundamental part of this strategy. The case sheds light on several theories on gaining competitive advantage through IT; these theories feature technology leadership, leveraging critical resources, the role of IT infrastructure, and switching costs. While these theories contribute to an explanation of Rosenbluth's success, a critical factor appears to be the vision to see an opportunity and the ability to hustle to exploit it.
Keywords: business history; information systems for competitive advantage; strategic information systems; travel industry

Group Decision Support: The Effects of Designated Human Leaders and Statistical Feedback in Computerized Conferences - Hiltz, Starr Roxanne; Johnson, Kenneth; Turoff, Murray (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
Twenty-four groups of five professionals and managers used computer conferences to reach agreement on the best solution to a complex ranking problem. Two software tools for structuring the conferences were employed in a two-by-two factorial design. Groups with "designated leadership" (DL) used software support to elect a discussion leader. Groups with"statistical feedback" (SF) were presented with tables periodically that displayed the mean rank and degree of consensus for each item. DL improved levels of consensus; in the absence of a leader, SF improved level of agreement slightly. Statistical feedback as operationalized in this experiment was detrimental to the ability of a group to achieve "collective intelligence," defined as a group decision better than the prediscussion decision of any of its individual members. Characteristics of the individuals and groups were also associated with variations in outcomes.
Keywords: computer-mediated communication systems; group decision support systems

The Effect of GDSS and Elected Leadership on Small Group Meetings - Ho, T H; Raman, K S (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
This research investigated the effect of a group decision support system (GDSS) and elected leadership on meetings of five-person groups. A controlled experiment that varied the form of decision support (no support, manual structure support equivalent to the GDSS structure, and GDSS support) and elected leadership (yes and no) was used to compare group decisions. Forty-eight undergraduate student groups were randomly assigned to one of the six treatment conditions of this 3x2 factorial design. The groups solved a preference task that required resolution of competing preference structures to arrive at group decisions. The level of premeeting consensus was used as a covariate. The dependent measures included postmeeting consensus, equality of influence, and influence of the leader. The major findings of this research are: • Manual groups displayed a significantly higher postmeeting consensus than GDSS groups. Elected leadership did not increase postmeeting consensus. • There was a significant correlation between equality of influence and premeeting consensus in GDSS groups. Groups that had high premeeting consensus seemed willing to let one member dominate the final solution. • Group support in the form of structure has potential to undermine leadership in small group meetings because leaders in manual and GDSS groups appeared to be less influential than their counterparts in baseline groups.
Keywords: electronic meeting systems; group decision support systems

The Impact of Office Information Systems on Potential Power and Influence - Soonchul, Lee (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
This paper explores a model of the impact of office information systems (OIS) on potential personal power and influence in an organization. The focus is on how OIS can increase the potential power and influence of an individual. I have drawn from power base theory to identify five bases of power that would, hypothetically, provide the potential for an individual's influence in an organization: (1) resource provision; (2) irreplaceability; (3) authority; (4) network centrality; and (5) expertise. To explore this conceptual model, data were collected from 136 users of well-established office information systems. This pilot study provides general support for our model that the impact of OIS on potential personal influence can be explained through its effects on the five power bases. In particular, the data indicate that network centrality is the most significant contributor to potential personal influence for administrative personnel, while resource provision is the most significant factor for technical personnel.
Keywords: office information systems; organizational power

Students as Surrogates for Managers in a Decision-making Environment: An Experimental Study - Hughes, Cary T; Gibson, Michael Lucas (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
Administering and controlling a field experiment in the area of information systems is a continuing problem. A solution for many researchers is to use students in controlled laboratory settings as surrogates for real-world decision makers. This practice is often questioned in many business and social sciences disciplines. Research results from attitudinal studies suggest that students' attitudes are not the same as those for whom they are surrogates. Still, some research demonstrates that students and nonstudents respond similarly during decision making. This paper contains the results of an experiment to decide if students and industry decision makers made decisions similarly before and following a training program in the use of a DSS generator. Our analysis of the results suggests that students were not adequate surrogates for industry managers in the decision-making process. Consequently, we dispute the claim that students and nonstudents unequivocally perform similarly during decision making.
Keywords: decision support systems; decision process attributes; managerial decision making; student surrogates; training

Using Computing in Quality Team Meetings: Initial Observations from the IRS--Minnesota Project - DeSanctis, Gerardine; Poole, Marshall Scott; Lewis, Howard; Desharnais, George (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
Quality improvement programs are regarded by many businesses as mechanisms for improving organizational competitiveness in the face of tightening budgets and more global market structures. Recently developed computer-supported group problem-solving tools, or Group Decision Support Systems (GDSSs), offer the potential to reduce the effort involved in applying quality improvement methods by providing automated means to enter, record, and operate on ideas generated by team members during face-to-face meetings. To explore how GDSSs might be used by quality teams, the Internal Revenue Service and the University of Minnesota conducted a multiyear study of GDSS use in small-group meetings. This paper presents some initial findings on the extent and types of uses of the technology made by teams based on the first seven months of our study. This preliminary analysis is presented within the framework of adaptive structuration theory and considers the relationship among inputs, processes, and outputs of group interaction as a GDSS is used.
Keywords: group decision support systems; group problem solving; quality teams

Exploring the Impact of Face-to-Face Collaborative Technology on Group Writing - Horton, Marjorie; Rogers, Priscilla S; Austin, Laurel; McCormick, Michael (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
This exploratory study examines the impact of face-to-face collaborative technology on group writing. We compared small groups writing managerial memoranda in a computer-supported meeting room, and with conventional writing tools. The computer environment, the Capture Lab, allowed us to study how a technology designed for broad functionality and flexibility in group process affects collaborative work. We find that the technology alters the writing process, resulting in less initial group planning, more individual work, and more revising than when conventional tools are used. This affects negotiation and consensus-reaching processes. The technology also reduces speech and group focus. User feedback suggests the technology has both positive and negative effects on group interaction. The technology did not affect overall document quality, although one measure suggests it can enhance writers' audience adaptiveness. Comparisons of how different groups used the technology suggest that these patterns influence document quality. In the conclusion, we discuss what groups need in order to use this kind of collaborative technology effectively and future research directions.
Keywords: collaborative technology; collaborative writing; computer-supported cooperative work; computer-supported meeting rooms; group work

The Architecture of an Information System for the Support of Alternative Generation - MacCrimmon, Kenneth R; Wagner, Christian (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
The pre-choice stages of the problem solving process are more difficult to support through information systems than choice itself. Systems that facilitate problem formulation and solution finding are typically either expert system programs with narrow application domains or programs dealing with easily quantifiable problems. In contrast, this paper introduces a decision support system, GENI, that operates independent of domain, aiding the user in general problem solving tasks. The system's purpose is to support the problem solving process, rather than be a substitute for the human problem solver, by providing structure and by using different stimuli to prompt the user for data input. To deal with broad classes of complex qualitative problems, no single processing mode is sufficient. Hence the techniques in GENI differ mainly An earlier version of this paper was originally published in the Proceedings of the TwentyFourth Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (IEEE Computer Society Press, 1991). This research was supported in part by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and by the U.S. National Science Foundation (Grant SES-9016305). We thank Nick Keenan for his assistance in developing portions of the software described in the paper. in the interface, that is, the types of stimuli displayed, and the types of data recorded. GENI's user interface is built around a standard dialog function that can be modified by means of parameter settings. Experimental results show that differences in the interface content can lead to significant differences in problemsolver performance.
Keywords: decision support systems; problem solving; problem formulation; alternative generation; idea generation; idea generation software

The Design Process for a Computer-Supported Cooperative Work Research Laboratory: The Hohenheim CATeam Room - Lewe, Henrik; Krcmar, Helmut (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
The design of an environment that supports computer-aided meetings of teams requires multidisciplinary cooperation between specialists in the field of computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW) and conference room and furniture designers in order to master all requirements of such an environment. With this in mind, this paper describes the design process and the experiences gained while designing the Hohenheim Computer Aided Team (CATeam) Room. This room offers a computer-supported meeting environment. In an iterative process of defining the CATeam Room requirements and developing design alternatives, a round room and conference table design were found to be most useful for the given requirements.
Keywords: information systems architecture; computer aided team; computer-supported cooperative work; conference rooms; conference tables; design; electronic meeting systems; group decision support systems

Building an Electronic Community System - Schatz, Bruce R (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
An electronic community system encodes and manipulates the range of knowledge and values necessary to function effectively in a community or organization. The knowledge includes both formal data and literature and informal results and news. The manipulation includes both browsing through the available knowledge, and recording and sharing interrelationships between the items. A large-scale experiment is underway to build an electronic community system for the community of scientists studying the nematode worm C. elegans, a model organism in molecular biology. This paper discusses a model for community systems and previous such systems in science, the biology experiment and a previous system, the enabling technology for handling the knowledge, the enabling mechanisms for handling the values, the state of the prototype, and speculations on future applications in supporting organizational memory.
Keywords: electronic community systems; electronic communities; scientific applications; information spaces; telesophy; organizational memory

The Conceptualization and Development of Organizational Decision Support Systems - George, Joey F (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
Organizational decision support systems (ODSS) are a new type of decision support system (DSS) focusing on the organization rather than the individual or the group. In this paper, various conceptions of ODSS are reviewed, as are several architectures suggested for their construction. The paper ends with a discussion of the information technology on which ODSS can be based.
Keywords: organizational decision support systems; decision support systems; group decision support systems

An Empirical Test of Object-based Output Measurement Metrics in a Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE) Environment - Banker, Rajiv D; Kauffman, Robert J; Kumar, Rachna (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
Existing output measurement metrics for cost estimation and development productivity need to be reexamined to determine their performance in computer-aided software engineering (CASE) development environments. This paper critiques and empirically evaluates four approaches to the measurement of outputs. Two of the metrics, raw function counts and function points, are based on the function point analysis methodology pioneered by Albrecht and Gaffney at IBM. The second two, object counts and object points, are based on a new approach—object points analysis—that is introduced here for the first time. The latter metrics are specialized for output measurement in object-based CASE environments that include a centralized object repository. Estimation results for nineteen large-scale CASE projects show that the new metrics have the potential to yield equally accurate, yet easier to obtain estimates than function points-based measures.
Keywords: CASE; computer-aided software engineering (CASE); cost estimation; function point analysis; object-based metrics; object point analysis; productivity measurement; software reuse; software development; software economics; software metrics

GOST: An Active Modeling System for Costing and Planning NASA Space Programs - Castillo, David G; Dolk, Daniel R; Kridel, Donald J (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1991)
This paper describes an active, or symbiotic, decision support system developed for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration called the Generic Operations Simulation Technique (GOST). GOST combines parametric modeling techniques (regression) with discrete-event simulation to cost and plan future space programs. GOST differs from previous process modeling approaches by providing an "artificially intelligent modeling expert" and an "artificially intelligent domain expert" for assisting the user in developing and analyzing process models. An object oriented knowledge representation system provides the foundation for the GOST environment. A taxonomy of Computer Directed Process Managers, implemented within the representation system, controls the appropriate processes responsible for delivering active modeling support. An earlier version of this paper was originally published in the Proceedings of the TwentyFourth Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (IEEE Computer Society Press, 1991).
Keywords: active DSS; modeling environment; econometrics; hierarchical knowledge system; decision support systems

Organization Support Systems: Bridging Business and Decision Processes - Fedorowicz, Jane; Konsynski, Benn (Journal of Management Information Systems, 1992)
New organizational information demands and emerging information technologies combine to make companywide, or organization support systems (OSS) an organizational imperative. The term OSS refers to the information technology infrastructure that establishes an environment for organizational and individual decision making. Issues that relate attributes of organizational decision and business processes to associated characteristics of platform information technologies are discussed. Some of these linkages may result in new emerging organizational forms. A proposed taxonomy of OSS demonstrates changes in the levels of embedded policy relative to facilitation of flexible organizational structures. This framework suggests research opportunities in areas of design of organizational structures, development of an organizational support systems architecture, and technical and organizational issues in decisions on strategy, structure, and systems. The paper highlights several key challenges in research and management practice.
Keywords: management support systems; organizational decision-making structure; organizational support systems